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.*
ili!'!",!"
The practice of typography
Theodore Low De Vlnne
a s^w* 77
HARVARD COLLEGE
LIBRARY
, -jlll^HlllllllllllHillllliliih ,
mn |A
BOUGHT WITH INCOME
FROM THE BEQUEST OF
HENRY LILLIE PIERCE
OF BOSTON
fcjpoogk
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Google
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■
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THE PRACTICE OP
TYPOGRAPHY
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^ X
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THE PRACTICE OF
TYPOGRAPHY
A TREATISE ON THE
PROCESSES OF TYPE-MAKING
THE POINT SYSTEM, THE NAMES, SIZES
STYLES AND PRICES OF
PLAIN PRINTING TYPES
BY
THEODORE LOW DE VINNE
NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1900
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6 r?zf,5?
Copyright, 1899, by
Theodore Low DeVinne.
The DeVinne Press.
/'
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PEEFACE
THIS treatise is a summary of detached notes
collected by the writer since 1860. A desire
to make it complete and exact has prevented its
earlier publication. As an aid to this result each
chapter has been revised recently by experts in
different branches of printing. In its present cor-
rected form it is believed that it will be found of
use to all who seek for information about types
which cannot be compressed within the ordinary
manual of printing, or be gleaned quickly from the
specimen books of many type-founders. The scope
of the book has to be limited to plain types. Re-
marks concerning newspaper types, typographic
decorations, and recent fashions in book- work,
have to be postponed. The composition of title-
pages may be the subject of another treatise.
In making the numerous corrections demanded
by changes of fashion and new methods of manu-
facture,! have not considered it judicious to change
the earlier and best -known name of any type-
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6 Preface
foundry which has introduced a new face of type.
Many of them are now branches of the American
Type Founders Company. To accredit each face
of type to a great company which has branches in
many widely separated cities would not properly
specify the maker or the place of manufacture.
Acknowledgments for valuable information in
the preparation of this matter are due, and are here
gratefully made, to the late David Bruce, Jr., the
late James Lindsay, and their successor Mr. V. B.
Munson, of the New York Type Foundry ; to Mr.
J. W. Phinney of Boston, Mr. L. S. Benton of New
York, and Mr. Henry Barth of Cincinnati, of the
American Type Founders Company; to Mr. Charles
T. Jacobi of the Chiswick Press, and Mr. T. W.
Smith of H. W. Caslon & Company, London ; to
Messrs. Theodor Goebel of Stuttgart, Claude Mot-
teroz of Paris, V. Deslandes of the Imprensa Na-
tional of Lisbon, and William E. Loy of San Fran-
cisco.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I The Processes of Type-making 9
n The Names of the Leading Sizes of Types 53
ni The Point System 123
iv A Font of Type 165
v Faces or Styles of Type. Old-style Roman 182
vi Modern Faces of Roman Letter 209
vn Condensed Roman Types 255
vm Italic Types 269
ix Fat-face or Title-types 281
x Black-letter 291
xi Gothic 315
xn Antique Types, Runic, Celtic, and Italian . 323
xm The Classes and Prices of Printing-types . . 336
xrv Large Types. Wood Types. The Panto-
graph. Benton's Punch-cutting Machine 345
xv Recent Quaint Styles of Plain Type ... 359
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PLAIN PRINTING-TYPES
The Processes of Type-making
PRINTING-TYPES are made from an
alloy of melted lead, tin, antimony,
and sometimes copper, that fills the
mould exactly and shrinks but little
in cooling. The utility of typogra-
phy depends upon the accuracy of each Types must
type, and the consequent squareness of a be founded
thousand or a hundred thousand types in n mould8
• any combination. This accuracy is most certainly
secured by founding each type singly in a mould.
Experiments in cutting or staging them from
cold metal have hitherto been unsuccessful. Nor
is there any practical substitute for type-metal :
brass and copper melt at a great heat that soon
wears out the mould ; lead and tin are too soft for
the service required ; glass is too brittle, and will
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10 Departments of Type-making
not entirely fill the matrix j gutta-percha and cel-
luloid cost more and have disadvantages that out-
weigh their merits. Large types for posting-bills
Large types are ma< l e from close-grained wood like
made from that of the box, maple, or pear tree : for
hard woods ^ g Drancn f printing, types of wood
are preferred, as lighter and cheaper than those
made from metal. Types of wood are seldom
smaller as to height of face than one inch. They
can be made smaller, but small pieces of wood
warp after heat or swell after moisture and are
unfit for practical work.
As now practised, type-making has six distinct
departments: (1) Punch-cutting, or the art of de-
six depart- s ^ mn g an< * engraving the model char-
ments in acters from which types are made j (2)
type-making Fitting . up) or tne art of adjusting the
matrices to the moulds ; (3) Electrotyping, or the
art of making matrices by electrolysis ; (4) Mould-
making, or the art of constructing the moulds in
which types are cast, and the exact tools by which
their accuracy is tested ; (5) Type-casting, or the
art of founding types in moulds ; (6) Type-dress-
ing, or the art of finishing the incomplete work
of the type-caster. The breaking-off of surplus
metal from the cast types, the rubbing-down of
the feather edge made in casting, the kerning or
adjusting of overhanging letters, and the final in-
spection of each finished type are additional oper-
ations. Every large foundry has a few workmen
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Punch-cutting the First Process 11
who are expert in two or three of these depart-
ments, but the ordinary workman has knowledge
and practice in one department only.
Punch-cutting is the first process, which must be
preceded by a careful drawing of the characters.
No operation in typography requires j^^^tr
more skill than this, and in none is ting is the
error more disastrous. 1 The modern ^p* 00688
punch-cutter is not fettered by arbitrary rules : he
does not conform to the models devised by Albert
Diirer, nor those subsequently made by French
theorists in type-founding. He is at liberty to
design characters that may be taller or broader,
thicker or thinner, than any heretofore made, but
he is required to make all the characters of a full
font uniform as to style, so as to show perfect
correlation. The characters must seem Type s mus t
uniform as to height, line, stroke, serif, be drawn
curve, and angle; they should^e in aocuratel r
proper relative proportion as to size, and as to
nearnesS 7 &id distance in all combinations. The
beauty of text-types is in their precision. That free-
dom of drawing which is permitted, and some-
1 Type-founding is not like If the punch-cutter has not the
other arts, in which imperfect requisite ability for the work,
workmanship may find a use the founder, who gives metal,
proportionate to its relative and the printer, who gives
value. Printing should toler- paper, cannot retrieve his er-
ate nothing that is bad, nor rors. They are obliged to per-
even that which is mediocre, petuate these evidences of his
since it costs as much to found mean ability, and to dishonor ty-
and print bad types as it does pography. Fournier, "Manuel
to found and print perfect ones. Typographique," vol. i, p. 3.
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12 Methods in Designing of Letters
times approved, in the letters of a good penman,
or in engraving, or in the types of job printers,
is not tolerated in the text-types of books, which
mnst be precise. 1
The assortment of characters known to printers
as a font of roman book-type requires the en-
graving of 150 punches : 29 large capitals, including
&, M, and (E ; 29 small capitals, including &, m, and
<E ; 33 lower-case characters, including fi, fl, ff, ffi, ffi,
8B, and ce ; 19 figures and fractions j 22 points, refer-
ences, and signs j 18 other characters. Accents
and the special signs required for some books are
not furnished in the regular assortment.
These characters are divided into six classes of
irregular heights of face: (1) Full-bodied letters,
like Q and j — that occupy the entire body of the
1 Dttrer's rules and diagrams
for the formation of letters, in
his " Unterweysung der Mes-
sung" of 1524, are reprinted
in ** Die Initialen der Renais-
sance," by Camillo Sitte and
Josef Salb (folio, Vienna, 1882).
Geoffrey Tory of Paris, in his
" Champfleury " of 1529 ; Ycair
of Saragossa, in his "Ortho-
graphia Practica " of 1548 ; and
Paccioli of Venice, in his " De
Divina Proportione" of 1509,
have also devised geometrical
formulas for letters. Moxon's
scheme for the plotting out of
each letter in little squares 42
wide and 42 high is illustrated in
the text (p. 13), and detailed ex-
planations of it are given in his
"Regul® Trium Ordinum Lit-
erarum Typographicarum " of
1676. The extreme of scientific
precision was attempted by a
commission of the "Academie
des Sciences " of Paris, appoint-
ed in 1694, of which M. Jaugeon
was the chief. He recommended
the projection of every roman
capital on a framework of 2304
little squares, and on a congeries
of squares and rhomboids and
curves for lower-case and italic
letters. These rules and dia-
grams no doubt are of some use
to designers of letters, but they
have never been fully adopted
by any punch-cutter.
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Types Must be Made by Rule 13
type; (2) Ascending letters, like A, b, h, d, that
occupy the upper three-fourths of the body; (3)
Descending letters, like p, y, g, q, that irregular
occupy the lower three-fourths of the heights of
body; (4) Short letters like a, o, that charactera
occupy about one-half of the body in the middle
part; (5) Small capitals, that are sometimes in
height more than one-half of the body, but not
as high as the ascending letters; (6) Irregular
characters, like the *, that have no arbitrary
height, but do have a definite position.
^A Scale of /2 Parts Vt'r. the Boly:
Moxon's method of designing letters.
The punch-cutter begins his work of practical
design by drawing a geometrical framework, on
which he determines the proper position Jjetter8 are
of every line and the height of each first drawn
character. A small margin is left at ^p** 6 *
top and bottom of the face to prevent the touch-
ing of a descending letter against an ascending
letter in the next line, as well as to prevent the
wear of exposed lines cut flush to the edge of the
body.
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14 Rules Not to be Used Servilely
The relative heights of the short and long letters
vary greatly : in some styles the short letters are
but one-third of the body j in other styles, nearly
two-thirds, and the ascending and descending let-
ters are correspondingly taller or shorter.
Measuring instruments of precision are needed,
but they cannot be used servilely or thoughtlessly.
optical do- ^° &* ve ^ e tyP e ^ e nee< kd appearance
lusions are of uniformity, some of the lines must be
humored j^ <j own i n directions that transgress
the rules. Some types have to be drawn longer
than their fellows. Optical delusions must be
humored, as will be more clearly shown in the
curved letters of the following illustration.
AOES
If a straight-edge be laid against the foot of
this line, one can see that the letters which curve
at the foot fall below the line. If they did not
project they would seem too short. The angles
of capital letters like A Y M N Z have to be varied
for each letter. These are conspicuous examples,
but there are many more; a large proportion of
the characters for every font of roman or italic
contain lines that are departures from the rules
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Departures from Rules often Made 15
which must be observed in their mated charac-
ters. Deviations have to be made occasionally, not
only to deceive the eye, but to make each letter
pleasing and generally acceptable in any combi-
nation with other letters. The effect of letters in
combination must be studied.
These irregularities cannot be formulated in a
system; they vary with every new style of face,
and to some extent with every new size of body.
The knowledge of what is needed in the forms of
types can be acquired only by long practice, and by
a careful study of the combinations of different
letters. American type-founders say that there
are not a dozen men in the United States who can
make acceptable drawings for a symmetrical font
of roman and italic types.
When the proportions of the letters have been
determined, the punch-cutter begins his work by
making a counter-punch of steel. The A counter,
illustration adjoining shows the form punch the
of a counter-punch for the letter H of flr8t work
B the size of double english. It is an engraving
■™ in high relief of the counter or hollow part
of the type, that is, of that part which ap-
pears white in the printed letter. These counter-
punches have little resemblance to the letters for
which they are intended. When approved, the
counter-punch is impressed, to a proper depth,
into the end of a short bar of soft steel. The
depth is necessarily shallow for small types and
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16
Cutting the Punch
deeper for large types. 1 Properly impressed or
struck, this counter-punch finishes, at one stroke,
the interior part of the model letter, and does it
more quickly and neatly than it could be done
with cutting tools.
This bar of soft steel is known as the punch.
When it has received the impress of
cutting *^ e counter-punch, the engraver
of the cuts away the outer edges until
^ xmch the letter is adjudged perfect.
The punch is the model type — the pat-
tern from which it is intended that
thousands of printing-types shall be
made. To make this model letter on
the punch faultlessly, all the measure-
ments of the drawing on paper are
repeated on the steel, gauges are fre-
quently used, and trial proofs are taken
while the work is in progress. To get
these trial proofs the cutter puts the
punch into the flame of a flaring gas-
burner until its face is covered with soot. Then,
after breathing repeatedly on a bit of paper until
its surface is softened by moisture, he firmly
presses the punch on the paper. In this way he
1 Fournier, in his " Manuel shallow, and sufficiently justi-
Punch of
letter H.
Typographique " (vol. i, p. 12),
recommends one-fourth of a
geometric line, or about the
forty-eighth of an inch, as the
proper depth for small type.
This makes the counter too
fles the objection of Fertel,
an early French printer, who
said that the counters of small
French types filled up with ink
too quickly, and thus prevented
good presswork.
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Making the Matrix
17
gets a sharper proof of his work than can be had
from any impression made from black mixed with
oil or upon paper sodden with water.
When the engraver has finished the cutting of
the punch, its soft steel is hardened until it has
strength to penetrate copper. This done, striking
it is then punched in a flat, narrow bar of of the
cold-rolled copper, which makes a reversed matrix
duplicate of the letter on the punch. In this state
the copper bar is known as a drive, a strike, or
an unjustified matrix. It is only
when the drive has been made per-
fect that it is known as the matrix.
This matrix is really the mould for
the face of the letter.
The drive is a shapeless bit of
copper, which must be accurately
fitted to the mould. During the op-
eration of casting, it must p^ing
move freely to and from the of the
mould, and yet be snugly matrix
fitted thereto. Its outer surface
must be in exact parallel with the
face of the sunken letter below.
Not only this matrix, but all matri-
ces of the same font, must be of the
same depth from the surface to the
sunken face; each must be accu-
rately square on the sides, and all must have the
sunken letters relatively in the same position. If
3
Matrix of
letter H.
The letters D i*
are private ma^s
of the founder
which cannot ap-
pear on the type.
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18
Electrotyping of Matrices
this is badly done, the founded types will not stand
true in line or have true spaces on the sides. The
process of converting a drive into an available
matrix, known among type-founders as fitting-up,
or justifying, is one of the nicest of operations.
When perfected the matrix is stamped at the foot
with letters or figures which enable the caster to
identify it.
Matrices are also made by processes of electro-
typing, 1 for which the punch of steel and the
Eiectrotyp- operation of striking are not required,
ing of the The model letters are cut on type-metal,
matrices an( ^ a fter preparation, are suspended
in a battery containing a solution of sulphate of
copper. The action of the electric current on the
submerged zinc and copper plates liberates atoms
l Joseph A. Adams of New
York was the first American
to experiment in electrotypes
for printing cuts. In 1839 he
was engraving the woodcuts
for Harper's "Pictorial Bible,"
at that date the most elabo-
rately illustrated book that had
been planned in this country.
In overseeing the printing of
this work he had practical evi-
dence both of the weakness of
the woodcut and the imperfec-
tion of stereotype, which sug-
gested to him the value of a
better process. In 1841 he fur-
nished to "Mapes's Magazine"
an electrotype of one of his en-
gravings, which was success-
fully printed. In 1840 Profes-
sor Jacobi of St. Petersburg,
Thomas Spencer of Liverpool,
and J. C. Jordan of London,
who seem to have been making
experiments without any know-
ledge of one another's attempts,
succeeded in making electro-
type plates. The first electro-
type matrix for types was made
by Edwin Starr of Philadelphia
in 1845, and used in the foundry
of James Conner of New York.
This innovation was not then
received with f aVor, for the new
matrices were inferior. The ob-
jections made against the first
electrotyped matrices do not ap-
ply to all that are made now,
because they are used for large
types in all type-foundries.
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Fitting of Matrices to Moulds 19
of copper which are attracted and adhere to all
the suspended model letters. When these letters
have received a thick deposit of copper they are
taken out of the battery and their thick coats or
shells of copper are removed. The shells are then
backed up or strengthened, and converted by the
fitter-up into movable matrices. Matrices can be
made by the electrotype process from engraved
type-metal as readily as from punches.
Every character in the ordinary font of roman
and italic has its own matrix, but all these mat-
rices are adjusted to one mould. This Aum^^g
mould must not only be true for its are fitted to
own work, so that every type cast from onemould -
it will readily combine with its mates, but must
be true in all points to the standard mould, and
all other moulds for that body. A printer requires
of the founder that types cast to-day shall be of
exactly the same body as types cast twenty years
ago, regardless of the wear of the mould during
this long interval. If types were as uniform in
width as they are in height, the task would not be
so difficult ; but letters vary irregularly in width
from the i to the W, and the spaces vary regularly
from the hair-space | to the three-em | | quad-
rat. It follows that the mould must be made ad-
justable, and that nearly every change of matrix
will compel a readjustment of the mould.
The type-mould is of two pieces, apparently
a right and a left counterpart. The matrix pro-
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20 Construction of the Mould
vided for the face is regarded as an attachment.
Each piece consists of a number of firmly screwed
The construe- *>its °^ polished steel. When the two
tion of the counterparts are properly brought to-
type-mouid g e ther their interior sides are in exact
parallel at a fixed and unalterable distance. The
upper end of the mould is provided with a seat
for the matrix; the lower end is open for the
inflow of melted type-metal. Between these ends
is the hollow to be filled with the melted metal
that makes the type. Although the mould when
joined is immovable in the direction that deter-
mines the body of the type, it has great liberty
of motion and ease of adjustment in the direction
that determines the thickness or the width of the
type. The counterparts, when properly adjusted,
slide to and fro on broad and solid bearings that
prevent their getting out of square. 1
Moulds are now made to be attached to type-
casting machines, for casting by hand exclusively
construction has not been done in an y American
of the type-cast- foundry since 1845. At the base of
in* machine ^ machine is ft smftU f urnace> the
heat of which keeps fluid the metal in the pot
above. Suspended over this pot is a flat-faced
i The type-mould now in use does not write of it as a recent
does not materially differ from invention. Its more important
that shown by Fournier, in his features are as old as the inven-
** Manuel Typographique " of tion of typography. Moxon's
1764, or by Moxon in his "Me- moulds were of iron ; those of
chanick Exercises " of 1683, who the early founders were of brass.
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Construction of the Mould 21
Type-mould without matrix, and with a
type of the letter H in the mould.
One half of the mould.
The other half of the mould.
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22 Operation of Casting Machine
piston, or plunger. Every revolution of the crank
gives to this plunger a sudden thrust which in-
jects through an unseen aperture enough of the
melted metal to instantly fill the mould and the
matrix, the matrix being held in place by a lever.
As soon as the mould receives the metal it opens
at an obtuse angle, as a door upon hinges. At
the same instant the pressure on the lever that
binds the matrix close to the mould is released,
and then the matrix springs backward. The type
is held in the upper half of the mould by a blunt
pin, and when it raises, by the assistance of a rod
which is connected with the apron, the stool hits
the face end at the back and releases the type.
As soon as the type is dislodged the mould closes
automatically, and the plunger injects a new sup-
ply of metal, which is thrown out as before in the
shape of a type.
Although types are cast singly they can be
made rapidly; the rate of one hundred in a minute
Types * s no ^ an uncommon production of the
rapidly smaller sizes. The large types, which cool
made slowly, are cast slowly. The degree of heat
required varies with the size of the body and the
hardness of the metal. As a rule the smaller sizes
are cast of harder metal and require greater heat.
Efforts have frequently been made to cast many
types at one operation from a multiple mould.
The most successful effort in this direction was
made by Henri Didot of Paris, who in 1819 in-
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The Bruce Type-casting Machine 23
The Bruce type-casting machine.
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24
Impressions of Cast Type
vented a " polymatype " mould for casting a font
of extremely small type ; x but this mould, although
occasionally used by his successors for very small
bodies, has not been adopted by other founders.
The types thrown out of the mould are for the
greater part perfect as to face, but unfinished as
imperfect *° body, for an unformed strip of metal
as thrown called the jet, which cools outside of
from mould ^ mou j ^ j s attached to the lower end
of each type. The bodies of the types have on
their corners burs, 2 or sharp edges of metal. These
and other imperfections have to be removed by
the rubber and dresser, or finisher. 3 The jets are
broken off, and the burs rubbed off on a grindstone,
or dressing machine. Types with projections, like
the f or j, are known as kerned letters, and are
smoothed on the sides with a file, or by a machine
in which a rapidly revolving wheel cuts away the
superfluous metal without touching the projecting
face. The types are then set up in a long row, and
firmly fastened, face down, in a grooved channel
i British Patent No. 4826 to
Louis John Pouchee. See the
"Abridgement of Specifications
relating to Printing," printed
by order of the Commission-
ers of Patents, London, 1859,
p. 165.
2 The bur is produced by a
slight and unavoidable leakage
of metal at the angles of the
mould. If the mould were set
so tight that air could not escape
from the corners, the types cast
therefrom would be porous with
air bubbles. Provision must be
made for escape of air when the
mould is suddenly filled with a
spurt of hot metal.
3 In 1838 and 1868 two patents
were granted to David Bruce,
Jr., for mechanisms which auto-
matically broke the jet and re-
moved the bur, but they were
not adopted by type-founders.
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Dressing and Hcmd-casting 25
called the dressing rod, so that a plane, working
in carefully adjusted side bearings, can cut away
the irregular fracture made by the broken jet. This
operation leaves the types with a shallow groove
between the feet, which allows each body Dre88ing or
to rest on its feet, thereby securing uni- finishing
formity as to height. The dresser then of type8
reverses the position of the row, bringing the faces
upward, and scrapes or flies the front and back of
the types, deftly changing them from one rod to
another, so that front and back may be exposed in
succession. This operation ends the smoothing of
the types ; their sides having been rubbed before
they were set in the dressing rod. The line or rod
of types is then critically examined under a mag-
nifying glass, and every type that shows an im-
perfection is thrown out and destroyed. This in-
spection completes the work. The perfect types
are then packed in paper convenient for handling.
This method of making types has been the method
of all type-founders before the year 1850. Since
1890 new machines have been invented The earlie8t
which do some of the work automati- method of
cally. It is mainly in the department nand ' ca8tln &
of casting the type that the greatest improvement
has been developed.
All types were formerly cast by hand. The
caster took in his left hand the mould, which was
imbedded in wood and shielded to protect him
from being burned with hot metal. Then, taking a
Digitized by VaOOQlC
26
Process of Hand -casting
spoon in his right hand, he poured the fluid metal
into the mouthpiece of the mould. 1 At the same
instant, with a sudden and violent jerk, he threw
up his left hand to aid the melted metal in mak-
ing a forcible splash against the matrix. If the
mould was not thrown upward quickly, the metal
would not penetrate the matrix. Hand-casting
was hard and slow work: Fournier says that
the production of a French hand-caster was from
two to three thousand types a day ; Moxon says
the English caster cast four thousand.
Type-founding in some of its processes is but
one of the many forms of printing. The counter-
punch impresses the punch ; the punch impresses
the matrix ; the matrix impresses the fluid metal.
l In 1811, Archibald Binny of
Philadelphia devised the first
improvement in hand-casting.
He attached a spring lever to
the mould, giving it a quick
return movement, which en-
abled the type-caster to double
the old production. In 1828,
William Johnson of Long Isl-
and invented a type-casting
machine which received the ac-
tive support of EHhu White
of New York ; but the types
made by it were too porous,
and the mechanism, after fair
trial, was abandoned. About
1834, David Bruce, Jr., of New
York invented a hand force-
pump attachment to the mould,
for the purpose of obtaining a
more perfect face to ornamen-
tal type than was possible with
the regular mould. This attach-
ment was known as the squirt
machine. Large ornamental
types owe their popularity to
this simple contrivance. In 1838,
the same founder invented a
type-casting machine, which
was successfully used for many
years in New York, Boston, and
Philadelphia. In 1843 he added
other improvements of recog-
nized value. Most of the type-
casting machines in Europe and
America are modifications and
adaptations of Mr. Brace's in-
vention.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Barth Type-casting Machine 27
For more than forty years the Bruce type-cast-
ing machine or some modification of it maintained
its popularity, and furnished nearly all the type
made during this period. Improvements of real
value were gradually added to it in different found-
ries, but the changes did. not materially increase
its productiveness. Yet it has never been regarded
as a perfect machine. Its great defect is its in-
ability to make the types perfect. To break the
jet off, to rub down the feather-edges, and to
plough out the feet, manual labor has to be em-
ployed, as in the days of hand-casting. At differ-
ent times Johnson & Atkinson of England, Foucher
Frfcres of France, Hepburn of England, and Kiis-
termann of Germany, invented new forms of type-
casting machines that were intended to produce
perfect types, but these machines have not been
found entirely satisfactory by the type-founders of
the United States. They have been most efficient
in making spaces and quadrats.
The nearest approach to success has been made
by Henry Barth, who was granted a patent Jan-
uary 24, 1888, for a complete type- ^^^
casting machine. He claims that this machine of
machine produces one half more than Henr y Bartn
the older machines; that it does its work with
more accuracy, and that it permits the use of a
harder quality of metal. Its construction and its
processes differ radically from those of the Bruce
machine. One half of the mould and the matrix
Digitized by VaOOQlC
28 The Barth Type-casting Machine
The Barth complete type-casting machine.
are fixed upright and made immovable ; the other
half of the mould rapidly slides to and fro on
broad bearings, releasing the type that has been
founded and closing again before the hot metal is
injected for a new type. It breaks off the jet,
ploughs a groove between the feet, rubs down the
feather-edges at the angles, and delivers the types
on the channel in lines ready for inspection.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Features of a Type
29
View of body inclined Letter H, from a type Face of the letter
to show the face. of canon body. on the body.
1 counter.
2 hair-line.
3 serif.
4 stem, or body-mark.
5 neck, or beard.
6 shoulder.
7 pin-mark.
8 nick.
9 groove.
10 feet.
Spaces of Pica
I I I I I ■ M
Hair. Five Four Three En Em Two-em
to to to quad- quad- quadrat,
em. em. em. rat. rat.
Three-em
quadrat.
Dimensions of Bodies
Non- Min- Bre- Bour- Long- Small-
pareil. ion. vier. geois. primer. pica.
Pica.
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30 Features of a Type
The face is the letter or character on the upper
end of the type which receives impression. As
Features its most notable feature, the word face is
of a type ai S o used to distinguish one style of type
from another, as broad-face or bold-face.
The beard, or neck, is the slope between the outer
edge of the face and the shoulder.
The shoulder is the flat top of the small rec-
tangle at the upper extremity of the body, which
upholds the neck and face of the type.
The counter is the depression between the lines
of the face. When the lines are in high relief, the
counter is said to be deep ; when low, the counter
is shallow.
The body-mark, or stem, is the thick line of the
face which most clearly indicates the character
and the height of the letter. It is better known
among printers as the thick-stroke.
The serif is the short cross-line put as a finish
at the ends of unconnected lines. Its form varies
with the style of face : in old-style lower-case let-
ters it is a blunt spur or a stubby triangle ; in the
French styles it is a weak and delicate hair-line ; in
modern Scotch-faces it is curved or bracketed on
the inner side, where it meets the main line.
The hair-line is the thin line of the face — as is
shown noticeably in the C, H, and M — that con-
nects or prolongs body-marks.
The kern is that part of the face which, on a
few letters, projects beyond the body. The end,
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Features of a Type 31
or beak of the lower-case f and j and many italic
letters have kerns, and are known as kerned letters.
Kerns are also made on the descending letters of
some forms of bastard faces.
The pin-mark is the small indentation on the
upper part of the body made by the pin which is
of service in dislodging the type from the mould.
The body is that part of the type which is be-
tween the shoulder and the feet. Early founders
and printers called it the shank. The word body
is also used to define sizes or thicknesses of types,
rules, leads, or furniture : Pica body means a thick-
ness of about one-sixth of an inch. The sizes or
bodies of type are now more accurately defined by
numerical points.
The feet of the type are the two slight projec-
tions upon which the body rests. It is between
these feet that the jet of the type-caster is made.
The groove is the hollow left between the feet
by the planing tool that removes every trace of
the broken jet.
The nicks are the shallow grooves across the
lower part of the body. In American, English, and
German types the nicks are on the front of the
body; in French types on the back. Nicks are
needed as plain guides to the position in which the
types should be composed, and to prevent the mix-
ing of different faces of the same body. Roman
types of the same foundry and of the same body,
but of different faces, usually have different nicks.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
32 Constituents of Type-metal
A font of type is a complete assortment of all
the characters that will be required in the compo-
sition of an ordinary text.
Sorts is the name given to a partial collection of
one or more of the characters of a font. It is most
frequently applied to the types that are deficient.
Type-metal is an alloy of lead, antimony, and
tin, and sometimes of copper and of other metals,
constituents Every type-founder has his own for-
of type-metal mula which he keeps secret. Ordi-
nary type-metal consists of one hundred pounds of
lead, forty pounds of antimony, and twenty pounds
of tin. 1 The metal for small type is harder than
that used for large type ; leads, spaces, and stereo-
type plates are always softer ; the backing of elec-
trotype plates is nearly all lead. Soft metal is
also used to prevent the breaking of kerned letters.
Ornamental types, which face or fill the matrices
with difficulty, are also cast of a soft metal.
Lead is always the chief constituent of type-
metal. Its specific gravity is 11.352 ; it melts at
617° Fahrenheit. Its density, ductility, and low
fusibility make it easy-working, but types of pure
lead are too soft for service.
1 Fournier says his hard type- In Germany the formula for
metal contained one-fifth of an ti- cheap metal is seventy pounds
mony to four-fifths of lead; his of lead, twenty-eight pounds of
soft type-metal had one-eighth antimony, and two pounds of
of antimony to seven-eighths tin ; the formula for good metal
of lead. He does not name tin. is fifty pounds of lead, forty
" Manuel Typographique," vol. pounds of antimony, and ten
i. p. 111. pounds of tin.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Additions to Type-metal 33
Antimony, a brittle and fibrous metal that can
be crushed to fine powder, is used to supply the
hardness. Its specific gravity is 6.715 j it melts
at 806° Fahrenheit. Type-founders use the form
of the metal known in commerce as the regulus
of antimony, or standard antimony.
Tin is a crystalline but malleable metal, which
has a specific gravity of 7.293, and melts at 442°
Fahrenheit. It is used to give toughness to type-
metal. It serves as a solder between metals fus-
ing at varying temperatures. It oxidizes slowly,
and prevents oxidization in its alloys.
Copper is used in small quantity to give still
greater tenacity. Its specific gravity varies from
8.8 to 8.95 5 its melting point is estimated at 1996°
Fahrenheit. A very small amount of copper in
type-metal will give it a yellowish pink tint.
Moxon says that iron was an ingredient of the
type-metal made in his time. Although melted
with lead and antimony, its most efficient service
was its extraction of the sulphur found in crude
antimony ; as then melted, it did not in any appre-
ciable quantity mix with the other metals. 1
1 The Mettal Founders make the sooner. To make the Iron
Printing Letters of, is Lead Run, they mingle an equal
htrdend with Iron : Thus they weight of Antimony beaten in
ehuse stub-Nails for the best an Iron-Morter into small pieces
htm to Melt, as well because and stub-Nails together . . .
they are assured stub-Nails are ; . . they put for every three
Biade of good soft and tough Pound of Iron about five and
Iron, as because (they being in twenty pounds of Lead. " Me-
«naH pieces of Iron) will Melt chanick Exercises," pp. 164, 167.
5
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34 Peculiarities of Type-rnetal
Zinc and some of the newly discovered metals
have been tried as ingredients of type-metal, but
zinc cannot m no case ^^ success - Zinc is espec-
be added to ially objectionable to type-founders. It
the alloy hag been f ound thftt ftn addition f one
per cent, will make the alloy so refractory and so
stringy that the metal cannot be founded. 1
The most remarkable peculiarity of type-metal
is that it shrinks so little after being cast, a prop-
Type-metai er ty n0 ^ * oun( i to so great a degree in
shrinks very any other useful alloy. Harder metals,
slightly wn ich must be melted at more intense
heat, must necessarily shrink in a corresponding
ratio, and this shrinking is injurious to accuracy.
Nor do the harder metals so truly fill the mould,
or make perfect casts.
The density of type-metal is a real advantage.
Although melted at a comparatively low heat, it
fills the mould and matrix with remarkable solid-
ity, and reproduces the finer lines of the matrix
with great exactness.
Another great merit in type-metal is its ability
to resist oxidization. It takes much usage to dim
its brightness ; it does not rust like iron or steel,
nor show corrosion like copper and brass. Types
are necessarily exposed to the action of air, water,
heat, lye, oils, inks, and alkaline solutions, but
none of these agents works any serious injury.
^European type-founder ad- old metal that contain any ad-
vertises that he will not only mixture of zinc, but will prose-
refuse types brought to him as cute the seller for damages.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Durability of Types 35
These useful properties are gained only at the
expense of durability. The hardest types soon
wear out. When morning newspapers Types lack
of large circulation were printed direct durability
from the type, it was often found necessary to
renew the fonts after a few months of service. To
jobbing type the damage by wear is even greater :
the beauty of script and hair-line types is some-
times destroyed by one month of service.
Ever since types were invented, founders have
studied to make them harder and more durable.
Great improvement has been effected,
but a point seems to have been reached preventing
beyond which additional hardness is toe use of
no longer an advantage. Every good **
founder could make his type harder, but only at
vastly increased expense. A harder alloy would
require greater heat to melt it; the metals used
would be more expensive; the moulds and ma-
chines would wear out rapidly ; the speed would
be slower, and the type not so accurate. 1
i French type-metal as made penetrate the plates of lead
at the beginning of this century which were then made to serve
had 50 kilogrammes of lead and for the stereotype moulds. For
18 kilogrammes of regulus of printing-types this mixture was
antimony. materiaUy " modified. "
Pirmin-Didot experimentally In 1840, M. Colson of Paris
made use of a mixture for added iron and tin as ingre-
rtereotyping purposes of 20 dients of type-metal. ("L'lm-
kilogrammes of copper, 30 kilo- primerie, etc. Rapport du
grammes of tin, and 50 kilo- XVTI© jury," by M. Ambroise
grammes of regulus of anti- Pirmin-Didot, Paris,1854.) None
many. Types made from this of these mixtures is now in use
mixture were hard enough to in France or elsewhere.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
36 The Wear of Types
The durability of types is materially affected
by size and cut of face. With kind usage a font
biiitv °' P* ca ma y rece i ye a million impres-
depends sions before it will be condemned 5 with
on the size the same treatment a font of pearl may
be worn out with less than a hundred
thousand impressions. Yet the pearl is always of
a harder metal. The difference in durability is
caused by the difference in face. In the size of
pica, the counters are broad and deep ; the hair-
line and body-mark will wear down and flatten
out to a great degree before the face will show
muddiness or illegibility: in the smaller size of
pearl, the counters are necessarily shallow; the
hair-lines and body-marks are thinner and closer
together. It requires more impression to print
the pearl properly; this impression, meeting with
less resistance, soon wears down the thinner lines.
The amount of wear that types may receive can-
not be stated in figures. One printer will con-
Tne wear sider them worn out when another will
of types think them capable of further service.
Brevier and minion have sometimes received two
millions of readable impressions upon newspaper
work, but the thick press- work from types worn
by more than one million of impressions would
be accepted only by a newspaper publisher. Many
book publishers would reject small types that had
received but three hundred thousand impressions.
For the finest letter-press work, the limit would be
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Wear made by Machines 37
put Very low. Typography with characters en-
tirely faultless can be had only from new type.
For type-founder's specimens and for sumptuous
books new types are always provided. They are
never reset, but are condemned to the melting-
kettle after their first use.
The repeated handling of types is as injurious
as the impression of the machine. One million of
acceptable impressions may be obtained Rented
from small types skilfully made-ready if handling
these impressions are taken from one in J uri0UB
form ; but if the types are repeatedly distributed
and reset for many different forms they will not
furnish one-fifth of that number. The wear of
types in the composing-room is much greater
than is commonly supposed. They are bruised
and battered in distribution and in composition,
in making-up, and especially by planing-down
and correction. The moulding process of stereo-
typing is remarkably injurious. Proving with a
brush, or moulding by the papier-mach6 method,
is more destructive, in most cases, than any kind
of printing machine. Nor can a more destructive
agent be found than the stiff scrubbing-brush
which is used, often by unskilful hands, to clean
the forms from ink after they have left the press.
Cylinder presses and type-devolving machines
have been adjudged as very injurious to types. The
noticeable wear of types on these presses is due
more to the omission of making-ready — which
Digitized by VaOOQlC
38 Causes of Wear
in the case of a morning newspaper is unavoid-
able— than to any inherent defect in the machine,
wear caused Cylindrical pressure need not, yet with
by neglect in careless hands it often does, grind off
presswork geri £ ^^ h a i r _ii ne muc h quicker than
pressure of platens. But types well worn can be
used under cylinders longer than under platens.
Letters that have been rounded on the edges to
such an extent that vertical pressure cannot give
a readable impression are made fairly legible when
they are printed on a rotary or a type-revolving
Rapid wear machine. This wear on types is often
avoidable avoidable. A careful compositor and
a skilful pressman can make types do twice the
service they give under the hands of careless work-
men. The modern style of making-ready, which
dispenses with the thick woolen blankets that
scrape and grind off the edges of the types, is of
as great advantage to them as it is to the appear-
ance of the printed work. On fine work a press-
man is now required to make, by overlays and
underlays, the types practically parallel with the
impression surface, so that the printed sheet shall
show on the back only faint marks of impression.
Yet careful making-ready is but a feeble safeguard
if paper has not been well selected and prepared.
Rough-faced hand-made linen papers, half-beaten
straw or wood papers, and all papers that are laid,
uncalendered, or of rough or ribbed surface, are,
when printed dry, especially destructive to types.
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Advantages of Stereotyping 39
The durability of types is also affected by their
uncleanliness and the want of care they may re-
ceive. If they are not thoroughly Durabmty
cleansed immediately after taking promoted by
proof or on leaving press, if dust and cleanline8B
paper fibers are allowed to settle in the counters
and harden with the drying ink, and if the sedi-
ment of the lye and turpentine used for cleansing
is allowed to collect — a thick, tenacious deposit
will soon be formed which cannot be removed
without nearly destroying the type. The count-
ers of a font of type so neglectfully treated will
soon become filled up, and this may happen be-
fore the stems or the serifs have been appreciably
thickened by the impression of the press.
The art of stereotyping is used as much to save
needless wear of types as to save the expense of
repeated composition. It adds nothing to the du-
rability of the types, but it withdraws them from
use, and furnishes a cheaper and more stereotyping
serviceable substitute. A mould in saves wear
plaster or prepared paper is taken from a page of
composed type, and this mould, when dry and hard,
serves as the matrix for making the stereotype.
The mould is then filled with melted type-metal,
which, when hard, is a proper duplicate of the face
of the composed type. The plate is thinner than
the types, and costs much less, both for metal
and for labor. It answers every purpose as well,
and thus saves the types from needless wear.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
40 Benefits of Stereotyping
A large octavo page of long-primer type weighs
about ten pounds and its types are worth about
three dollars. The stereotype or electrotype plate
taken from it weighs about twenty ounces, and
costs about forty cents, but the metal therein has
some permanent value. As stereotyping not only
saves the type from needless wear, but also saves
the expense of recomposition, it is freely made
use of by all publishers in America. Its advan-
tages are not confined to book printers ; it is of
decided economy in the printing of morning news-
papers, when duplicated forms have to be put on
two or more presses. Large editions of those pub-
lications could not be printed at all without the
aid of stereotyping. Electrotyping, another pro-
cess for securing the same result, has practically
supplanted the stereotyping of book work.
/ If the type used in printing a book is distrib-
uted before stereotyping, of course the composi-
Beneflts of tion is not available for even one more
stereotyping edition; but if the forms have been
stereotyped, the labor of composition is saved for
any number of editions, because the plates used on
the first edition may be used on twenty successive
editions without repeating the expense of the orig-
inal composition. After stereotyping, the types
may be distributed and rearranged in many other
combinations. The plates are unalterable. The
advantages of stereotyping or electrotyping are
equally beneficial to both printer and publisher,
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Process of Copper-facing 41
saving the type of one and lessening the expenses
of the other. In the United States all books that
may be reprinted are electrotyped.
The process invented in 1851 by Dr. Newton
of New York, which is known as copper-facing,
is of value in making types more process of
durable. The faces of the types to copper-facing
be treated are immersed in a solution of copper.
Under the influence of a galvanic current atoms
of copper are deposited on them, covering every
part with a thin film. This deposition continues
from three to twelve hours, according to the
strength of the battery and the nature of the
work. When taken from the bath the types so
exposed are ready for use. Types that have been
copper-faced are made more durable, not by the
superior hardness of the copper, for the coating
is too thin to offer any great resistance to im-
pression, but by its superior tenacity. The stems
and delicate serifs may be flattened under pres-
sure almost as readily as before the operation of
copper-facing, but they cannot be broken or
gapped as easily.
The process of copper-facing differs from that
of electrotyping in a very important point. In
the electrotype, the atoms of copper C op P er-facing
attach themselves to, and duplicate, differs from
the smooth face of the mould, and this electrot rP in e
smooth-faced duplicate becomes the printing sur-
face. But in copper-facing these atoms attach
6
Digitized by VaOOQlC
42 Hardness of Type-metal
themselves to the smooth surface of the types,
and adhere to it, leaving the rough, crystallized
upper side of the deposit as the printing surface.
This rough surface is often objectionable. The
earliest impressions from copper-faced type are
never as perfect as those from the uncoppered
type. There is always more or less thickness and
unevenness of face, which can be removed only
by continued use. For newspapers copper-facing
is of great value ; for the finest work it is not to
be so highly commended. The expense of copper-
facing a font of roman types is about one-sixth
of the type-founder's charge for the type.
Hardness of metal is usually considered as of
great importance in types. The quality of the
The test of me tal is roughly, but not always accu-
iiarciness in rately, tested by breaking a type. If this
type-metal k en< j g ver y much before breaking, show-
ing a ragged fracture, or if it, when whittled, curls
up in unbroken rings, the metal is soft. If it breaks
off short, after much resistance, showing a close,
crystalline fracture, the metal is hard ; but if it,
when whittled, crumbles at a slight touch the metal
may be hard but is deficient in tenacity. Great
hardness, without tenacity, is as serious a fault
as too much softness. Types that easily break
when dropped upon the floor, or that have their
serifs and hair-lines gapped by planing-down or
by rubbing with a brush, betray an excess of
antimony and a deficiency of tin or copper.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Even Lining of Types 43
Solidity is equally important. It is a material
fault if the broken types reveal minute bubbles
or porousness, either in the face or the solidity
body. This defect was common to all types of t5Te
made by the early casting machines which were
imperfect, but it is now exceptional.
As all the characters of a font of type are usually
cast in but one mould, which is tested daily and
oftener, there is not much liability to inaccuracy
in the body of a font so cast. 1 But when a large
font of types is cast in haste from two or more
matched moulds there is an increased liability to
error. Sorts, or additions to a font, made at any
time after the first casting, may be slightly inac-
curate. Types may be cast thinner at the foot
than at the shoulder, and this fault may be in-
creased in rubbing down, or finishing; but bottled
types, as these are called, are now unusual.
Every letter in a font should present the appear-
ance of standing even in line with all its fellows.
The maintaining of this evenness of Even lining of
line, apparently so simple, is one of importance
the nice parts of a type-founder's work. One rea-
son, but not the only one, why the Latin text,
Quousqtie tandem dbutere, Catilina, was used so
*At the International Exhi- in a chase in horizontal position,
bition of 1851, a prominent type- upheld by supports one at each
founder of London exhibited a corner of the chase, so that each
form of pearl types containing type was exposed to the air on
220,000 characters. For twenty- both face and feet. The casting
one weeks this form was kept was so true that no type fell out.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
44 Uneven Lining of Types
frequently by type-founders in their specimens,
was that Latin, as compared with English, had
an excess of small and a deficiency of ascending
and descending letters. Types composed in Latin
had a more symmetrical look and an evener line
than could be produced from an English text.
Modern founders, confident of their superior abil-
ity, do not hesitate to show their types in English.
These types show an uneven
lining in the letters n and e;
the n too high, the e too low.
The deviation in lining here shown is enough to
destroy the appearance of the font.
Uneven lining will be most frequently noticed
in sorts, or the new letters that are cast to supple-
ment a deficient old font. The new letters may
be made out of line by the founders, but
this rarely happens when lining letters are AAA
sent. The uneven line is more frequently vTT
caused by accretions to the body of the old aAA
type, which have been made through want AAA
of cleansing from dust and ink. Before AAA
new types are mixed with old, they should AAA
be tested by setting them in vertical lines, ^"Tv*
between rows of old type, as shown in this a AA
illustration.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Bad Fitting of Matrices 45
The fitting-up of type, which is the founder's
term for adjusting the face upon the body, is of
highest importance. The set of the mould is al-
tered with almost every change of the matrix, and
In these lines the e has too
much space at the left, the
a too much at the right; the
t is too close at the right,
the h too close at the left.
if this alteration is not intelligently done, some
types will be too wide, and others too narrow. A
font of type so fitted-up will exhibit ungainly gaps
between some letters, and a confusing proximity
between others, as is shown in illustration above.
Bad fitting is sometimes shown in letters the
stems or thick-strokes of which lean slightly from
a vertical line, either to the right or to the left.
In these lines the letter t
leans to the right, and the
letter e leans to the left.
This fault is exceptional in roman, but is not at all
infrequent in some of the older fonts of italic.
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46 Unequal Height of Types
A bad fitting-up of matrices to the mould is
occasionally shown in the unequal heights in line
of the different characters of the same font. This
irregularity is seldom noticeable in the types of an
entirely new font, but it may and often does occur
in the sorts or additions cast subsequently.
In these lines the letter o is
too high ; the letter t is too
low; the letter h is tilted out
of perpendicular on one side.
Unequal height is a more frequent fault since a
recent change in the height to paper of type-bodies
Differences from - 9166 to - 918 inch ' The difference
in height of but one five-hundredth of an inch may
of types j^ almost imperceptible when types of
these heights are printed together on damp paper
against an elastic impression surface, but it is a
fatal fault when these types are printed on dry
paper against a hard surface. To bring up the low
types the over-high types will be crushed. A new
font which contains characters of unequal heights
to paper will show from the beginning many of
the blemishes of a worn-out font. Unequal heights
to paper should be watched for in all types cast
from old electrotyped matrices that have been un-
equally worn. The process of copper-facing tends
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Good Mechanical Finish 47
to make types of unequal heights by an occa-
sional uneven deposit of copper.
An improper fitting of the face on the body is a
very serious fault. For its legibility each character
needs a fair relief of white space outside its stems.
The distance between the stems of all the types in
a word should be reasonably uniform. As a rule
this distance is most satisfactory when the space
between the stems of meeting letters is about the
same as that between the stems of the letter m.
This is not always practicable, for letters are irregu-
lar as to shape, and a nice discretion must be ex-
ercised by the fitter-up, who has to consider the
combinations of these irregular shapes. As a rule
condensed type and small type need close fitting j
fat and expanded type a wider fitting.
The types of this column are The types of this column
dose-fitted, but they are as read- are wide-fitted. Each letter
able in solid as in leaded com- is separated from its fellows,
position. Nor is the appearance but the composition has an
of the composition damaged by uninviting appearance. It is
dose or thin spacing. Each let- not easier to read. It cannot
teris distinct, although some let- be thin spaced nor set solid to
ten nearly touch their fellows at advantage, nor is it improved
extreme points. in any way by wide leading.
The mechanical finish should be of the highest
order. Good types should be so carefully rubbed
and dressed that there will be no burs Good finish is
or roughness on the edges to cut the important
fingers of the compositor. The shoulders should
be low enough on the body to prevent their being
blackened by the inking roller, and to allow the
Digitized by VaOOQlC
48 Choice of Face
kerned letters to lap over without interference.
The kerns should be well supported so that they
will not break under proper treatment. The nicks
should be clearly defined, and different either in
number or in position from those of other faces or
styles of the same body. The hair-lines and serifs
should have a sloping base, to give them a proper
support. The counters should be deep enough to
prevent their quick filling-up with ink and paper
dust.
Italic type needs special examination; blemishes
in fitting-up are more frequent in italic than in
italic must the roman of which it is the mate. A
mate with font of italic should not only be in line
the roman ^^ the roman> but should show all its
features as far as the change of face will permit.
In the early practice of type-making, one face of
italic was often made to serve for two or more
faces of roman. This practice has not been en-
tirely discontinued. A light-faced italic is some-
times mated with a heavy-faced roman, a condensed
italic with a round-faced roman, making a plain
change of shade or of shape on the printed page
where they are used together.
The choice of the face is usually decided by its
appearance on the specimen sheet, but some re-
The choice gard should be paid to its mechanical
of the face adaptation to the work for which it is
designed. The appearance of a face will vary
with methods of presswork. That which is just
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Types that Withstand Wear 49
bold enough in the carefully printed specimen of
the type-founder will be too bold in the news-
paper when printed with soft ink and upon coarse
and moist paper; and one that seems light enough
on damp paper is altogether too light and weak
when printed on dry paper.
Whatever face may be selected, it should be
mechanically well cut: the angles should be true;
the serifs of uniform length ; the body- Type8 mugt
marks of uniform width ; and a visible t>e pleasing
harmony should pervade the font. A toama88
perfect font of types should produce a pleasing
general effect in any combination of characters.
This face wears
This endures
It is not enough that each character seems pleas-
ing when examined apart from its mates ; it must
also be pleasing in composition. This cannot be
if all the difficulties of combination and fitting
have not been foreseen and provided for. Rudely
cut or badly fitted type will mar the effect of the
best composition and presswork.
The durability of type is affected by the press
on which it is printed. Types with long ascenders
7
Digitized by VaOOQlC
50 Bold-faced and Light-faced Types
and descenders, and with very long and sharp
hair-lines and serifs, are not well suited for cylin-
ders or for type-revolving machines, because all the
force of the impression is at regular intervals spent
A face with long
and feeble serifs
on the serifs and edges of these projecting letters.
To secure the highest durability on cylinder ma-
chines, types with short ascenders and descenders,
broad faces, and stubby serifs should be selected.
Bold, black-faced types are not, for general use,
as durable or even as readable as those that have
A bold-face with
hair-lines and
serifs too weak
lighter stems, firmer serifs, and a more open ap-
pearance. The common opinion that all light-faced
types are necessarily fragile is derived from an
experience obtained when letter-cutting was not as
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Why Light-faces wear Well 51
skilfully done as it is now. The light-faced types
of thirty years ago were made with hair-lines and
serifs that were long, sharp, and feebly Bold-faced
supported, that gapped with slight abra- and ught-
sion, and that broke off altogether under ftMjed type8
an uneven impression. Approved modern light-
faced types are radically different : the hair-lines
are supported by broad bases, and the serifs are
strengthened with bracket-like curves where they
join the stems or body-marks. These hair-lines
will thicken very little with continual wear, and
are not liable to gap or to break down.
A light-face that has
both firm hair-lines
and bracketed serifs
In deciding upon the comparative durability of
a light-faced and a heavy-faced type, two points
must be considered: the force neces- Light _ faoe d
sary to secure a perfect impression, and types may
the resistance opposed by the type to be durable
that force. They necessarily increase and decrease
in inverse ratio. A solid tint-block presents a
greater resistance and requires more impression
than the same surface of type ; a page of antique
type cannot be faced with the same impression
Digitized by VaOOQlC
52 Why Light-faces wear Well
that will fairly print a page of script. The denser
or broader the face, the greater is the resistance,
and the stronger must be the impression. Upon
a page of bold roman type this impression must
be felt equally on the hair-lines and body-marks.
When an elastic blanket is forced by impression
into the counters and around the edges of each
face, the hair-lines will be gapped, the serifs will
be gradually broken down, and the surface of the
body-marks will be rounded off. The resistance of
light-faced type is less ; so less force is required in
A bold-face with
short serifs that
soon show wear
impression, and it is more equally divided between
hair-lines and body-marks. Alight-faced type prop-
erly cut will lose its sharpness sooner, but it will
wear down with more evenness, and will present
a clear outline when the hair-line of a bold-faced
letter has been worn out, and the character can be
identified only by its stem or body-mark.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
II
The Names of the Leading Sizes of Types
JHEN the faces of text-types were
limited to roman, italic, and black-
letter, one or two words described
the size, or body, and another word
defined the face. The multiplica-
tion of faces now compels founders to make names
longer and more descriptive. The features are
usually given in this order: (1) The body or size
of the type, as " Pica." (2) The style or face of
the type, as "Pica gothic." (3) The ornament or
fashion of the type, as " Pica gothic ornamented." x
(4) The shape of the type, as " Pica gothic orna-
mented condensed."
The names of the more important bodies or
sizes of types are given in the following tables :
1 See a following chapter for remarks on different styles.
53
Digitized by VaOOQlC
54 American, and English Names
New Name
60-point .
48-point .
44-point .
40-point .
36-point .
32-point
30-point .
28-point .
24-point .
22-point .
20-point .
18-point .
16-point .
14-point .
12-point .
11-point .
10-point .
9-point .
8-point .
7-point .
6£-point .
6-point .
5i-point .
5-point .
4i-point .
4-point .
3^-point .
3-point .
- American -
Old Name
. Five-line pica
. Canon, or four-line. .
. Meridian
. Double paragon
. Double great-primer
. Four-line brevier
. Five-line, nonpareil
. Double english
. Double pica
. Double small-pica . .
. Paragon
. Great-primer
. Columbian
. English
. Pica
. Small-pica
. Long-primer
. Bourgeois
. Brevier
. Minion
. Minionette
. Nonpareil
. Agate
. Pearl
. Diamond
. Brilliant
English
Five-line pica
Canon, or four-line
Two-line double pica
Two-line great-primer
Two-line english
Two-line pica
Double pica
Paragon
Great-primer
Two-line brevier
English
Pica
Small-pica
Long-primer
Bourgeois
Brevier
Minion
Emerald
Nonpareil
Ruby
Pearl
Diamond
Brilliant
. Excelsior Minikin
Digitized by VaOOQlC
French, and German Names 55
> French . German
New Name Old Name Old Name
Corps 72 Triple-canon Kleine Sabon
Corps 60 Grobe Missal
Corps 56 Double-canon
Corps 52 Missal
Corps 48 Eleine Missal
Corps 44 ... Gros-canon
Corps 42 Grobe Canon
Corps 36 TrismSgiste Canon
Corps 32 Kleine Canon
Corps 28 Petit-canon Doppel Mittel
Corps 24 Palestine Doppel-Cicero
Corps 22 Gros-parangon
Corps 20 Petit-parangon . . . Text
Corps 18 Gros-romain
Corps 16 Gros-texte Tertia
Corps 14 Saint augustin . . . Mittel
Corps 12 Cicero . Cicero
Corps 11 Philosophic Brevier
Corps 10 Petit-romain Corpus, or Garmond
Corps 9 Gaillarde Borgis, or Bourgeois
Corps 8 Petit-texte Petit
Corps 7 Mignone Colonel
Corps 6£ ....
Corps 6 Nompareille Nonpareille, or Nonpareil
Corps 5J ....
Corps 5 .... Parisienne Perl
Corps 4i Diamant
Corps 4 Diamant
Corps 3 Semi-nompareille
In France the old names have typography, and even in some
been out of use for many years, comparatively modern specimen
but it seems necessary to repeat books of French type-founders,
them here, for they are to be In Germany the use of numeri-
fonnd in all the early books of cal names is limited.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
56 Italian, Spanish, and Dutch Names
Italian Spanish Dutch
Imperials
Reale Cinco Lectura
Ducale Cuatro Lectura
Corale Canon Parys Kanon
Canone Doble Parangona . Groote Kanon
Sopracanoncino . Doble Texto Kanon
Canoncino Doble Atanasia . . Dubbelde Augustijn
Palestina Doble Lectura . . . Dubbelde Mediaan
Ascendonica Doble Lecturita . . Assendonica
Parangone Parangona Paragon
Testo Texto Tekst
Soprasilvio San Agustin
Silvio ... Atanasia Augustijn
Lettura Lectura Mediaan
Filosofia Lecturita Dessendiaan
Garamone Entredos Garmond
Garamoncino Medio Texto Burgeois, or Galjar
Testino Breviario Brevier
Mignone Minona, or GlosiUa Collonel
Nompariglia Nomparell Nonpareil
Parmigianina . . . Perla Parel, or Joly
Diamante Diamante Diamant, or Robi jn
Occhio di mosca . Brillante
In Italy, Spain, and Holland collected from the "Manuale
the numerical names of types on Tipografico " of Bodoni (Parma,
the point system have been par- 1818) ; the Spanish and Dutch
tially adopted, but they are not names have been gathered from
yet so fully established as to specimen books, and from in-
put all old names out of use. formation given to the author
These Italian names have been by Spanish compositors.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Bastard Types 57
In the preceding tables an attempt has been
made to arrange the names given to types by each
nation in line with those given to similar variations
sizes by other nations ; but a similarity of to bo^es
name, or position on the same line, does not mean
that types so named or placed are of exactly the
same body. Large allowances must be made for
variations. In making a comparison of types or
sizes from various countries, the difference in bodies
below pica is too slight to be noticed by an in-
expert, but in those larger than pica the differ-
ence may be marked,.and the similarity of names
may be seriously misleading.
Types have been made and named everywhere
without system. The exceptions are few. Paragon
and nonpareil have virtually the same name in
the foundries of all nations cited ; canon, pearl,
and diamond are almost as widely known.
The list given comprises all the bodies known by
simple names. All sizes above canon are called by
their multiples of pica, as five-line, nine-line, etc.,
names which indicate that the bodies so defined
are five or nine times the height of a pica body.
Bastard types are those with faces too large or
too small for the body : a minion face upon a non-
pareil body, or a brevier face upon a bour- Bastard
geois body, is a bastard size. A small face types
is sometimes cast on a large body to give the open
appearance of leaded type, and a large face is some-
times cast on a small body to make the print more
8
Digitized by VaOOQlC
58 Regular and Irregular Bodies
compact. The bastard types are not highly es-
teemed, and are now made only to order. These
Nonpareil on Agate. Agate on Nonpareil.
The types of this paragraph are The types of this paragraph are of
upon agate body, but the face is a the ordinary agate size, but the space
very large nonpareil. The tails of between the lines is less than the
hlt^SS^SJSiS^ %ivBA& thickness of any practicable lead,
Slowness o ?t£^ite ?££»& and shows the body Xf nonpareil. The
made for a directory with an intent nonpareil is to give it the effect of
to get the largest possible face of leaded type without the use of leads,
type within the smallest space. and to make the print more readable.
methods of putting a large face on a small body,
or a small face on a large body, make it difficult
even for an expert to identify the body of any
type so treated. There is no accepted standard of
height for the short or round letters of any face,
but it may be assumed, as a general rule, that long
ascenders and descenders belong to a face which is
small for the body, and that short ascenders and
descenders belong to a face which is large for the
body.
A distinction is made by type-founders between
regular and irregular bodies. The regular bodies
Regular and ar ? P earl ; nonpareil, brevier, long-
irreguiarbod- primer, pica, great-primer, and all
iesoftype multiples of pica. They are called
regular because they are the bodies that have been
preferred and have been most in use. The irregu-
lar bodies are diamond, agate, minion, bourgeois,
small-pica, english, and all their multiples. They
are called irregular because most of them were
unknown to Moxon and the early English printers.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Two-line Types and Double Types 59
The distinction is more fanciful than real ; in some
printing offices the irregular sizes are in greater
use. Display and ornamental types are usually
cast only on the regular bodies, and for this rea-
son it is of advantage to give them a preference.
American type-founders give separate names to
two-line types and double-bodied types. A two-
line pica and a double pica have the r^o^e
same body. The face of the two-line types and
type occupies nearly the whole of the *™m**v"
body ; the capital of a double-bodied type is much
shorter, and terminates on a broad shoulder. The
a
line
Hardy HS
Double great-primer Two-line great-primer capital
capital and lower-case. with two lines of great-primer.
double-bodied letter is usually accompanied with
lower-case, for the descending letters of which
this broad shoulder is provided. The two-line
letter is usually of capitals only, and is or should
be so put on its body that as an initial letter it
will line with the second line of the small text-
type of which it is the duplicate. In England
this distinction is not so well observed. The
double pica of English type-founders appears to
be the equivalent of our double small-pica; and
what they call two-line pica is our double english.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
60 The Practice of Typography.
Brilliant. Aacpapo aijai jtaorqa aTUTwa Ta
Diamond. ilCDCTOHUKLMNOPOEBTCVWIYZ
Pearl. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Agate. ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQE8TU V WXVZ
Nonpareil. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Minion. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Brevier. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Bourgeois. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ |
Long-primer. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW |
Smau-pica. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTIA |
pic,. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSJ
Engu*. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP|
*«**«. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNC|
Wl. ABCDEFGHIJKL
ABCDEFGHIJJ
ABCDEFGH
Double
pica.
Double
english.
Double .
great-primer.
Double
paragon.
ABCDEF(
ABCDE
ABCE
Canon.
The black squares show the em, or square of the body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Practice of Typography. 61
Diamond. fttedcfgliijklmiiopqrstaTwxTS
Pearl. abcdefgrhijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Agate. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Nonpareil. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Minion. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Brevier. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Bourgeois, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Long-primer, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Smaii-pica. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Pka. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
English, abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx
Gre^prtoer. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
Double,
small-pica.
Double
pica.
Double
engnsh.
Doable
great^prlmer.
Doable
paragon.
abcdefghijkl mnopqr
abcdefghijklmnop
abcdefghijklm
abcdefghij |
abcdefg
abcdefi
Canon.
The black squares show the em, or square of the body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
62 Canon to Double Pica
The alphabets on pages 60 and 61 show the sizes
of standard types and their relative proportions.
Canon, or 48-point, is four times the height and
sixteen times the area of the standard size of pica.
It was so called from its early employment
in the leading lines or paragraphs of the
printed canons of the Church, as is also indicated
by its German name of missal. The canon of the
English type-founders is usually a face of about
three lines of pica cast on a four-line pica body.
The face of full height on four-line pica body is
called four-line.
Meridian (four heights of small-pica), or 44-point,
is a body rarely selected for letters, and has but a
limited use for combination borders.
Double paragon (four heights of long-primer), or
40-point, was a favorite for ecclesiastical printing.
The larger types of the famous " Psalter of 1457 "
are on this body.
Double great-primer (four heights of bourgeois),
or 36-point, is a body largely used for ornamental
types.
Four-line brevier, or 32-point, is never used for
text-types; only for borders or ornamental faces.
Double english, or 28-point, is a body, seldom
selected for text-types, but largely used for script
and ornamental letters.
Double pica, or 24-point, is a favored body for
all faces. English type-founders describe it as
two-line pica.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Double Small-pica to Great-primer 63
Double small-pica, or 22-point, is a body in fre-
quent request, but most preferred for ornamental
faces. It is known in England as double pica.
Paragon (double long-primer), or 20-point, is a
body seldom selected by any American or English
founder, yet it has distinction as a size
favored by William Caxton as well as by
the printer of the " Bible of 42 lines." The name
of paragon is now out of use in Germany, but 20-
point type is there known and much used under
the name of text.
Great-primer (double bourgeois), or 18-point, is
a favorite body for the text-types of large quartos
and folios, as well as for ornamental faces. Great-
Its size, one-half more than that of pica, vr\mer
or 12-point, permits it to be freely used with pica
and nonpareil in combination borders. The name
is of doubtful origin, but it is probably derived
from use of the type on a large leaf. Rowe Mores
says that great-primer was a favorite size with
early English printers, and the size preferred for
some large primer of the English Church. 1
1 It was also known as Bible- ination were printed at Paris
text from its frequent use in as early as 1490, and in Eng-
Bibles. Henry viii allowed his land in 1537. (Reed, " English
subjects to use an English Form Founders," p. 37, note.) Reed
of Public Prayer, and ordered suggests that Primer may be
one to be printed for their use, from the Latin premere, to print,
entitled the " Primer," which and naturalized in England un-
eontained, besides the prayers, der the name of " imprimery."
several psalms, lessons, and an- Great-primer may be the great
thems. " Primers" of the Eng- print letter. In Holland, Italy,
tiah Church before the Bef or- and Spain it was called text.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
64 Columbian to Pica
Columbian (double brevier), or 16 -point, is a
neglected body, first made in text-type by George
Bruce of New York to supply a size that seemed
to be needed between english and great-primer.
It is not a regular body for book-type.
English (double minion), or 14-point, is one of
the oldest of bodies, the one selected for the " Let-
ters of Indulgence of 1453," by some un-
known printer at Mentz, and also by an
early printer in the Netherlands. It has the name
english because it was so extensively used by early
English printers for their law books, acts of Par-
liament, and exclusively English work. Germans
call it mittel because it is the middle or inter-
mediate of the seven sizes of type in greatest use.
It has been a body of marked irregularity; before
the adoption of the system of points in France
and Germany it varied from 15 to 13 points.
Pica (double nonpareil), or 12-point, is a favorite
body for important works in octavo. The pica
body has been, and still is, the standard unit
for determining sizes. All the larger sizes
of type above four-line, and all the more impor-
tant widths of furniture, are made to bodies that
are regular multiples of pica; all thicknesses of
leads, and sometimes of brass rules, are graduated
to divisions of pica, and are called by the divi-
sors, as four, six, eight, or ten to pica. Like great-
primer, it takes its name from its early use as a
text-letter. "The Pie" (of which the word Pica
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Small-pica and Long-primer
65
is the Latin name x ), writes Mores, " was a table
showing the course of the services of the Church
in the times of darkness. It was called the Pie
because it was written in letters of black and red,
as the Friars de Pica were so named from their
parti-coloured raiment black and white, the plu-
mage of a magpie."
Small -pica (double agate), or 11 -point, is one
of the so-called irregular bodies which an early
writer on printing thought unworthy of
a place in any printing office ; but type-
founders now find that it is in greater request in
book-printing offices than the regular body of pica.
Long-primer (double pearl), or 10-point, is an-
other body which takes its name from its early
use in ecclesiastical books. 2 The name was prob-
ably given first to the size of the leaf, the long
duodecimo, on which the services of the Church
were printed without abbreviation, and secondly,
Small-pica
i Mores gives this quotation
from a Breviary of Sarum, as
printed in 1555:
{[ Incipit ordo breviarij feu
portiforij fecundum morem &
confuetudinem ecclefle Sarum
Anglicane : vnacum ordinalifuo
quod vifltato vocabolo dicitur
Pica Ave directorium facerdo-
tum in tempore pafchali. — Pars
Hyemalis. (Rowe Mores, " Eng-
lish Founders," p. 23.) He also
gives on p. 24 the title of the
Directorium sacerdotum quern
[Hbrum] Pica Sarum vulgo vocitat
cleru8, as a book frequently re-
printed by the English printers.
Caxton advertised the "Pyes of
Salisbury use." Reed suggests
that Pica may refer to the black-
and-white appearance of a print-
ed page.
2 Rowe Mores quotes the title
" A Prymer of Salisbury use set
out a long by Robert Valentine
at Rouen, in the year 1555," as
explaining its origin. But the
type of this book is pica, and not
long-primer. ("English Foun-
ders and Founderies," p. 26.)
Digitized by V3OOQLC
66 Bourgeois to Minionette
to the smaller type, which was more serviceable
for a leaf of this shape. It continues to be the
body preferred for duodecimos.
Bourgeois (double diamond), or 9-point, possibly
gets its name, as Reed suggests, from the French
city of Bourges. Bourgeois was not first
ourgeo ma( j e ^here, f or it i s the body of the text-
letter of the "Compilatio Decretalium " of Pope
Gregory ix, printed by Torresani, at Venice, in the
year 1498. The name may be derived from the
frequent selection of this body for the small and
cheap books made for the bourgeoisie.
Brevier (double brilliant), or 8-point, carries a
name that suggests its early employment in the
printing of breviaries. 1 The notes of the
Decretals referred to in the previous para-
graph are in types of brevier body.
Minion, or 7-point, is one of the irregular sizes,
and is now in small request, except for newspaper
work. Its name indicates the esteem in which
it was once held, not only by English, but by
French and Italian typographers, as a small and
valued darling of a type.
Minionette, or 6£ point, is a body largely used
in France for combination borders. The adoption
of the borders in the United States compelled the
1 Reed says that most of the Many of the cheap and more
breviaries are in types of larger popular editions must have been
size, but this remark can apply worn out by long usage ; some
only to the finely printed ones of these editions must be un-
which have been preserved, known to bibliographers.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Nonpareil to Diamond 67
adoption of the same body, but it is now passing
out of use. It seems to be the equivalent of the
English emerald, which is used as a text-type.
Nonpareil, or 6-point (the half of pica), is the
most used of the small bodies. It seems to have
been made for the first time in 1490 by
John Froben of Basle, for a black-letter
octavo edition of the Bible. It first appeared
with a fine roman face in a beautiful manual of
services of the Roman Catholic Church printed at
Venice in 1501. It was probably adjudged a mar-
vel of skill in letter-cutting, for it has preserved
its name in all countries.
Agate, or 5J-point (the half of small-pica), is a
favorite size for newspaper advertisements, and
for all kinds of printing in which great compact-
ness is desired. It is known in England as ruby.
Pearl, or 5-point (the half of long-primer), finds
employment in pocket editions of the Bible, prayer-
books, and small manuals, as well as for side and
cut-in notes and references. The celebrated printer
Jannon made it famous by selecting it in 1627 as
the text-type of his so-called " Diamond v editions,
printed by him at Sedan.
Diamond, or 4£ point (the half of bourgeois),
seems to have been made for the first time by Vos-
kens of Amsterdam, who cut a full font of _
Diamond
it about the year 1700. Van Dijk, the type-
founder for Daniel Elzevir, had shown in 1681 a
size smaller than pearl, but it was not so small as
Digitized by VaOOQlC
68 Brilliant to Non-plus-ultra
Voskens's diamond. Pickering of London selected
this body for his miniature editions of the classics.
Brilliant, or 4-point (the half of brevier), is a
size of this century. One square inch of ordinary
composition in brilliant contains about 1200 pieces
of metal : of the lower-case i, 3456 are needed to
make one pound in weight ; of the thinnest space,
nearly twice as many.
Excelsior, or 3-point (the half of nonpareil), is a
body used in America for music, piece-fractions,
and borders only. It seems to be the same body
as the English " minikin.''
Yet there is a text-type still smaller. In 1827
Henri Didot of Paris, then sixty-six years old, cut
with his own hands a font of type on the body
of 2J points by the Didot system, which he called
" microscopique." Twenty-five lines of this type
apparently fill the space of one American inch.
The founder Gronau of Berlin shows three text-
types (roman, italic, fractur) cut for a 3-point body
but cast for convenience on that of a 4-point.
The EnschedS Foundry of Haarlem has cut a
still smaller face, a "non-plus-ultra," on a 2-point
body, but it is cast on a 4-point body.
These types are wonderful as evidences of skill ;
but they are of slight value in the practice of
printing.
. The general effect of the sizes most used in ordi-
nary composition is shown in the following illus-
trations.
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Six-line pica, or 12-point 69
Oldest
verified
print is
■ (The woodcut of St. Christopher)
of date
Digitized by VaOOQlC
70 Five-line pica, or 60-point
The old-
est type
Printing
( Letters of Indulgence ) q
has writ-
ten date
of 1454
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Four-line pica, or 4S-point 71
The earliest
types are of
English and
Double pica
bodies: they
were found-
ed in moulds
Digitized by VaOOQlC
72 Double paragon, or 4tO-point
^The earliest
book bearing
a printed date
is the famous
Psalter (1457)
published by
John Fust and
his son-in-law
P. Schoeffer #
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Double great-printer, or 36-point 73
The types of the
PSALTER made
in 1457 were cast
on the bodies of
double paragon
and double great
Drimer, and the
300k was decor-
ated with red ink
and large initials.
10
Digitized by VaOOQlC
74 Double english, or 28-point
k A Bible in types
of paragon body, 42
lines to a page, has a
certificate that its il-
lumination was done
at Mentz, A. 0.1456,
Another Bible, of 36
lines, from types of
double pica body, is
believed to have been
printed between the
years 1450 and 1459,
at the same old city.
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Double pica, or ^Arpoint 75
% Certain books known
to have been printed at or
near Mentz and before the
year 1460, and in different
sizes of type from double
paragon down to english,
show that the methods of
type-making and printing
were in regular use. The
imprint of the Psalter of
1457 says that book was
made by the "masterly
invention of printing and
also of type-making." ^
Digitized by LjOOQIC
76 Double small-pica, or 22-point, solid
What was this invention of
type-making ? Ulric Zell,
writing in 1499, says that
this masterly and subtile in-
vention was "the art as it
is now used." Trithemius,
in 1 5 14, declared that this
invention was "the method
of founding the forms of all
the letters which they called
matrices, from which they
cast the metal types." Peter
Schoeffer, in the "Gram-
matica" printed by him at
Mentz, says metaphorically
of the book, "I [this book]
am cast at Mentz."e$^K&$39
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Double small-pica, or 22-point, leaded 77
Bernard Cennini of Florence,
writing in 1 47 1 , declares that
the characters of his books
were first cut and then cast.
Nicholas Jenson of Venice,
in a book dated 1485, says
that the types of his book
were cut and cast by a di-
vine art. An account book
of the Ripoli Press at Flor-
ence, 1474—1483, specifies
the metals and the materials
now used in type-foundries.
The art then practised was
"the art as it is now used."
Digitized by LjOOQIC
78 Great-primer, or 18-point, solid
Ulric Zell says that John Guten-
berg, a citizen of Mentz, was the
inventor of printing. Trithemi-
us says "the admirable and till
then unheard-of art of printing
books by types was planned
and invented by John Guten-
berg." John Schoeffer, the son
of Peter, in 1505 declared that
the admirable art of typography
was invented in the year 1450
by the ingenious John Guten-
berg. A tablet near his tomb,
put up soon after his death, is
inscribed to John Genszfleisch
[Gutenberg], inventor of the art
of printing. A second tablet,
1 508, is to John Gutenberg of
Mentz, who, first of all, invent-
ed printing letters in metal. «^®§s»
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Great-Primer, or 18-point, leaded 79
Many writings of the fifteenth
century testify that John Guten-
berg was then regarded as the
inventor of typography. In the
Catholicon of 1460, a book at-
tributed to Gutenberg, is the
statement that the merit of the
new art is shown in the "admi-
rable proportion, harmony and
connection of the punches and
matrices." The key to the in-
vention of typography was the
discovery of the only proper art
of making the types, "the art as
it is now used," for there is no
other. The legends of a Dutch
invention by Koster in 1440 did
not appear in print before 1546.
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80 Columbian, or 16-point, solid
Punches and matrices were fre-
quently sold at the close of the
fifteenth century. In the year
1476 John Peter from Mentz was
selling matrices to some print-
ers of Florence. The goldsmiths
of Florence and Venice were cut-
ting punches for printers. Aldus
Manutius of Venice complained
that Francis of Bologna, who cut
the punches for his new italic,
had also cut duplicates for the
Giunta. When he began to print
at Alost in 1474 John of West-
phalia announced that he had
the genuine Venetian characters.
The types of Jenson of Venice
were copied in books printed in
France. Caxton of London and
Mansion of Bruges used a similar
face of type. So did Leeu and
Bellaert, and Machlinia and Vel-
dener, of the Netherlands. $*$*#*
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Columbian, or \Q-point, leaded 81
C All early type-founding was
without system. The printer who
directed his punch-cutter to copy
the letters in a manuscript had
no perception of the beauty of a
series of uniform faces and grad-
uated bodies. Gutenberg used
pointed gothic and round gothic
faces. Jenson made roman and
round gothic. Other printers had
cut for them mongrel faces which
are now entirely disused. Type-
casting was always done by the
printers, who had a simple form
of mould in which they cast sev-
eral bodies of types, as is shown
in the two bodies of english made
by Gutenberg and the four bodies
of english made by the unknown
printer of the Netherlands. <§&§*»
11
Digitized by (jOOQlC
82 English, or 14rpoint y solid
All the early printed books were cop-
ies, more or less faithful, of the manu-
script model. They were fair copies
of its form of letter, of its size of page
and width of margin, and its arrange-
ment of text and notes. Large blanks
were left for initial letters that should
grace the beginning of every chap-
ter or other important division, and
for the decorative border that should
enclose the text. After the printing
of the text-type had been entirely done,
the initials and borders were added by
a professional illuminator who some-
times closed the work of which he
was justly proud with a written state-
ment to which he added his name as
the decorator. The most direct proof
that the Bible of 42 lines was printed
before 1456 is the certificate, in one
copy, of Albech, the illuminator. The
Psalter of 1457 contains great initials
which had been engraved on nested
blocks for printing in two colors. The
blocks were separated, inked, and then
joined and printed by one impression.
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English, or 14^pointj leaded 83
Other printers of that age found it less
troublesome to leave these spaces for
borders and initials blank, to be filled
in by the buyer of the book. But few
of these book-buyers had the time or
the ability to do this work. Only the
wealthy could pay the prices asked
by illuminators. Consequently not one
book in a hundred had its unsightly
blanks filled with the decorations in-
tended. Then book-buyers began to
question the utility of the white gaps
and the broad margins; they began to
ask for more print and less paper, for
books that were perfect when sold by
the printers. To meet this demand,
the printers of Augsburg at an early
date undertook to furnish small orna-
mental initials, but Ratdolt of Venice
seems to have been the first, in 1477,
to make the true decorative initials, or
the literceflorentes, as he called them.
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84 Pica, or 12-point, solid
Ratdolt's initials were probably cut in high
relief on metal, for it was not then econom-
ical, perhaps not even practicable, to found
large ornamental letters in a mould. Much
of the so-called engraving on wood of this
period, especially of engravings noticeable
for their fine or delicate lines, was really
engraving on brass, copper, or type-metal.
Jean Dupre of Paris says, in a devotional
book (entirely typographic) printed by him
in 1488, that his engravings of Bible stories
and pictures were "printed upon copper."
The largest text-types, on a body of about
4^ picas, were founded for John Sensen-
schmidt, and printed by him in the Bam-
berg Missal of 1 48 1. Stock of Nuremberg,
and some unknown printer in Spain, made
types nearly as large, but most buyers of
books preferred smaller types and volumes.
The printers tried to adapt the old fashions
of decorating the books to the new art by
engraving full-page borders, and initials de-
signed to show white letters upon a gray
groundwork. It was then expected that the
book-buyer would illuminate the page by
painting red the letters in white. This
fashion of making white letters has been
continued to this time, although the sup-
posed necessity for them does not now exist.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Pica, or 12-point, leaded 85
Typography received its most valuable
improvements from the printers of Italy, in
which country the three text-letters of great-
est usefulness were first made : (i) Roman,
first founded by Sweinheym and Pannartz
in 1465, and afterward perfected by Jenson
at Venice in 1471 ; (2) Italic and (3) Small
Capitals, introduced together by Aldus' Ma-
nutius at Venice in 1 501. The first volume
entirely in Greek was printed at Milan in
1476 ; the first book entirely in Hebrew, at
Soncino in 1488. The forms then adopted
have not been seriously changed ; modern
taste is now drifting back to a closer adher-
ence to the models first made by the more
skilful of the early Italian founders. Title-
pages, copperplate maps and illustrations,
engraved inkials»and borders, smoother and
thinner papers, smaller types and simpler ar-
rangements of types on the page, narrower
margins, handier sizes of books, and inexpen-
sive forms of binding — all these, and most
of the minor improvements which make
books more attractive, were first introduced
or were most skilfully executed in Italy.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
86 Swatt-pica, or U-point, solid
In the art of making books attractive, France
soon became the superior of Italy. For books of
devotion and for the literature of romance, early
French printers preferred the black-letter char-
acter, which they had cast for them in many ad-
mirable forms. Not content with beauty in types,
Verard, Pigouchet, Kerver, Vostre, and other emi-
nent publishers and printers, secured the coopera-
tion of many able designers, who provided initials
and borders of marked merit which are still re-
garded as masterpieces of typographical decora-
tion. Geoffrey Tory, one of the ablest of early
French designers, in his book of " Champfleury "
tried to bring into more general use the roman
form of letter, which was even then preferred
by French scholars, and which ultimately became
the accepted text-letter of the nation. Claude
Garamond, one of his pupils, seems to have de-
voted himself entirely to designing and casting
types for the printing trade. He carried out in a
practical manner many of the reforms in typog-
raphy which had been proposed by his master.
His roman characters, based upon the models
of Jenson, and his italics, which he improved by
inclining the capital letters, were much admired
and eagerly bought by printers in foreign coun-
tries. They earned for him the distinction he has
had ever since as the " father of letter-founders."
Type-founding was made a distinct art in France
before it was in any other country. At Paris,
Lyons, and Rouen were founders who supplied
printers of all countries with punches, matrices,
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Small-pica, or 11-point, leaded 87
or fonts of type. Guillaume Le Be (1525-1598)
succeeded Garamond as the leading type-founder
at Paris, cutting many forms of orientals for the
Royal Printing House, for printers of Venice, and
Christopher Plantin of Antwerp. During three
generations his descendants maintained the high
reputation of French type-founding. After the
death of the last Le Be in 1707, the foundry was
bought and ably sustained by Fournier the elder.
The house of Sanlecque, almost as famous, was
founded by Jacques de Sanlecque, a pupil of Le
Be. He was celebrated for his music types and
for the oriental types he made for Le Jay's Poly-
glot Bible. Pierre Moreau, who began his work
in 1640, Jean Cot, who began in 1670, and Pierre
Esclassant, who began in 1666, were other notable
founders of Paris, but they were dwarfed by the
reputation and fast growth of the Royal Printing
House, which was then making fashions for types.
In 1 704, M. Jaugeon of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, working under a commission from the
king (Louis XIV.) to make a truly "royal" type,
introduced the fashion of extended and almost
conjoined hair-line serifs. This feminine fashion
added nothing to the beauty of types, but it did
largely diminish their legibility and durability.
Nine sizes of characters were made in this style.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
88 Long-primer, or 10-point, solid
Louis Luce,the punch-cutter of the Royal Printing House
between the years 1740 and 177 1, further disfigured the
roman character by putting flat, extended serifs upon
the tops of some lower-case letters, and by adding a
needless side-spur to the lower-case d as is here shown.
During all the changes of government and of name
(for it has been called Royal, Imperial, and National),
this printing house of the French government has
steadily maintained a high reputation for the wealth
of its material and the general beauty of its produc-
tions. It has been made richer in many ways. Napo-
leon, exercising the arrogated right of a conqueror, in
1799 robbed the printing office of the Propaganda at
Rome, and in 1808 that of the Medicis at Florence, of
their valuable collections of punches and matrices. In
1 81 5 the new government of France ordered them to
be restored, which was partially done. It afterward
enlisted the services of the ablest punch- cutters of all
nations in cutting characters for all languages that have
a written literature. The official history of this office,
published in 1861, states that it then owned 361,000
punches and matrices. Among them are the Greek
characters of Garamond made under the direction of
Robert Stephens, and the romans modeled after the
designs of Jenson. The punches of Grandjean, Alex-
andre of 1693, and Luce; the borders of Fagnon, the
ornaments of Papillon, and some of the work of Four-
nier the elder ; the collection of orientals cut in Con-
stantinople under the direction of Savary de Breves —
these and others are all to be found in the punch
closets of this National Printing House. Firmin-Didot
added new styles of roman in 1811; Jacquemin in
1 8 18, and Marcellin Legrand between 1825 and 184.7,
designed new and peculiar faces. The work of other
punch-cutters of high reputation — among them Leger-
Didot, Delafond, Dresler and Rost-Fingerlin of Frank-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Long-primer, or 10-point, leaded 89
fort, Bodoni of Parma, and Vibert and Bopp of Berlin
— is exhibited at length in the large specimen book of
1 86 1. In 1848 it had distinct characters for fifty-two
different languages, many of them on different bodies.
Although the National Printing House at Paris has a
deservedly high reputation, many important improve-
ments in French types and typography were made by
founders and printers who were never in its service.
At Lyons the type-foundry of Lacolonge, which passed
from father to son for many generations, had an envi-
able reputation for three hundred years. Its earliest
and ablest punch-cutter, Robert Granjon, showed more
boldness and originality than any other designer of his
time. Some connoisseurs in typography hold that an
early form of light-faced roman capitals, first shown
at Lyons in the xvith century, presumably by Granjon,
is really superior in design to the roman of Jenson, or of
Garamond, or any of their successors. The type-foun-
dry of Pierre Simon Fournier (or, as he is better known,
Founder the younger) began its work at Paris in 1736.
In his " Manuel Typographique " he shows one hun-
dred alphabets, ancient and modern, of great merit, a
large part of which was made by his own hands. His
greatest service to typography was his invention of the
point system of type-bodies, which is more fully de-
scribed in another chapter. Jacques Charles Derriey
( 1 808-1 87 7), whose specimen album of 1868 is one of
the masterpieces of typography, is deservedly honored
as one of the most skilful of modern type-founders.
He gave his best attention to borders and ornaments.
12
Digitized by LjOOQIC
90 Bourgeois, or 9-point, solid
Italian typography began to show signs of its decadence
early in the xvith century. After the death of the earlier
printers and designers the types of Venice did not sustain
their reputation. But one Venetian type-foundry of the
XVilth century, that of the Deucheni, had any celebrity
for its productions. The most notable Italian foundry was
the one established in 1578 by the order of Pope Gregory
xiii., which, with its printing house, has been called the
"Apostolic Printing Establishment," the " Printing House
of the Vatican," and the "Press of the Propaganda de
Fide." Its first punch-cutter was the Frenchman Robert
Granjon, invited there from Lyons, who began the series
of orientals which, continued by other hands, has made
the house famous. Its specimen book of 1628 showed the
largest collection of foreign characters. The press of the
Propaganda still does a limited quantity of valuable work,
but it is much surpassed by the national printing houses
at Paris and Vienna. Type-foundries did not flourish in
Italy; in 1742 there was but one in Turin, under the man-
agement of the Royal Printing House, and but one in
17 19 at Milan, under the direction of the printer Bella-
gata. All the large Italian cities now have type-foundries,
yet they have done but little for the improvement of the
national printing. Giambattista Bodoni ( 1740-18 13) is the
only Italian founder and printer of modern times who has
fairly earned the highest honors. As the superintendent of
the Press of the Propaganda he showed the ability which
caused him to be invited to reconstruct and manage the
Ducal Printing House at Parma. Assuming this position
in 1766 he soon made the Ducal Printing House the first
in Europe. His " Manuale Tipografico," in two quarto
volumes, begun by him but completed by his widow in
1818, contains 279 pages of specimens which are good
evidences of his skill and industry. These specimens in-
clude the alphabets of about thirty foreign languages,
some of them in two or more sizes. He is most celebrated
for his peculiar styles of roman and italic, which were cut
on a new system and with great clearness and delicacy.
His styles are now out of fashion, but the stimulus he
gave to the founders of all other countries still endures.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Bourgeois, or 9-point, leaded 91
Type-founding did not improve in Germany as it did
in France and in the Netherlands. The able printers of
classic texts at Strasburg, and in other cities, supported
as they were by the authority of Albert Diirer, could not
induce German readers to accept the roman character.
They preferred pointed letters, but were not agreed, even
at the beginning of the xvith century, as to the superior
merit of any one of the many styles made by the type-
founders. The bible-text of Gutenberg, which is the basis
of modern black-letter; the profusely ornamented and
flourished letters of the "Theuerdanck," which is the
model of modern " german-text " ; the round-gothic, or
the semi-gothic, of Schoeffer, a hybrid of roman and black-
letter; the schwabacher and the fractur — all these had
admirers. The fractur was at last accepted as the stand-
ard form of text-type, but it has never found favor with
the Latin races or with English-speaking peoples. This
adherence of Germans to pointed letters has prevented
interchanges of matrices, which has damaged German
type-founding by limiting the sale of its types and books.
Before 1700 little was known abroad of German type-
foundries, though they were more numerous than those of
any other part of Europe. That of John Gottlob Immanuel
Breitkopf of Leipsic, which was established in 17 19, and
celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1869, was the first to
obtain a wide reputation. The brothers Walbaum of
Weimar demand notice as reformers of the German char-
acter. The Imperial Printing House of Vienna is cele-
brated for its large collection of foreign types. Woellmer
at Berlin, Schelten and Giesecke at Leipsic, Meyer and
Schleicher, and Poppelbaum at Vienna, are eminent as
founders. The house of W. Drugulin (Johs. Baensch) of
Leipsic is noted for its admirable printing.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
92 Brevier j or 8-point, solid
Type-founding in the Netherlands during the latter half of the
xvtn century exhibits the best and the worst of workmanship.
Blades believes that there were two schools or two methods :
one casting its types in moulds of sand, and the other in moulds of
metal ; one, the method of an experimenter, or a badly taught
pupil; the other, our method, or the "art as it is now used."
The type-founding of the alleged Koster and of his school is bad ;
that of the printer of the " Book of the Golden Thrones " (Haar-
lem, 1484) is excellent. The types of Thierry Martens of Alost,
and of some of his rivals and followers, are equal to any from
France or Italy. Some of the punches and matrices must have
been bought in France or Italy, but more must have been made
at home by able engravers who are now entirely unknown.
Christopher Plantin of Antwerp had many of his newer styles
made by Francois Guyot and his son (educated at Paris, but
residents of Antwerp). Laurent Van Everbroeck, Jacques Sor-
bon, Aime" Tavernier, and Gerard d'Embden were type-founders
at Antwerp who worked for the Plantin establishment. Plantin
was also supplied with punches and matrices by Le B£, Gara-
mond, Haultm of Paris, Bomberghe of Cologne, and Robert Gran-
jon of Lyons. Of all these designers he seems to have preferred
Granjon. Plantin's Flemish characters were made by Henry
van den Keere of Gand, who, with his successor Thomas de
Vechter, did much work for his house beween 1567 and 1589.
The most notable of the earlier Dutch founders was Christoffel
Van Dijk of Amsterdam, of whom little is known except that
he cut punches for the Elzevirs. His types, of which his succes-
sor Atnias of the " Jewish Foundry" issued a specimen of about
twenty faces (including Greek, Hebrew, Italic, Roman, Black,
and Music), have been warmly praised by Moxon and Willems.
Athias (1683) was succeeded by Schipper, Clyberg (1705), and
Roman (1767). Dirck Voskens of Amsterdam was equally prom-
inent in 1677 as a type-founder. He and his descendants
largely supplied English printers with types that were highly
commended by Luckombe in his book on printing. In 1780
the name of the house was Voskens & Clerk, afterward A.
G. Mappa of Rotterdam. The Wetsteins (R. & H. F.) were
German founders who began in Amsterdam before 1740, and
who for many years maintained a good reputation for their small
types. The firm of Ensched£, formed oy Isaac Enschede* in
1 7°3» bought out the Wetsteins and made the beginning of the
celebrated Haarlem type-foundry, which from time to time ab-
sorbed the foundries of Dirck Voskens, J. Blaew, Hendrick de
Bruyn, Van den Putte, Van der Velde, and Ploos von Amstel.
It is still the largest type-foundry in Holland, and is celebrated
for the merit of its oriental characters.
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Brevier, or 8-point, leaded 93
Caxton, the first English printer, began his work with types
that show Flemish mannerisms. They were probably made at
Bruges, for they closely resemble the curious characters of Colard
Mansion and those of John Brito of that city. Garrulous enough
in other matters, Caxton is very reticent concerning the opera-
tions of typography. In none of his many books does he say
anything about the origin of the eight different fonts he used.
It is probable that he, like the other printers of his time, bought
the punches and matrices where he could, and cast the types in
his own printing office. The lower-case letters of one of his later
types are exact copies of those made by Fust and Schceffer, and
are equally well executed ; but the capitals for this lower-case
retain the peculiarities of the Flemish grosse bdtarde, or secretary.
Wynkyn de Worde, pupil and successor of Caxton, used many
of his master's types, but the styles he adopted later, and
those of his fellow-pupil and business rival, Richard Pynson,
were cut by French artists who modified or suppressed all of
the Flemish mannerisms. The form of black-letter preferred by
these early English printers is still accepted as the best. It has
suffered no transforming change which conceals its derivation.
The old english black-letter of our day adheres more closely
to the models of the first printers than does the Flemish black
or the German fractur. The introduction of the Roman form of
letter by Richard Pynson in 1 518 did not suppress the black-
letter, which remained the favorite letter of the people for
more than a century afterward. Reed says : " The Black being
employed in England to a late date, not only for Bibles, but for
law books, and royal proclamations, and acts of parliament, has
never wholly fallen in disuse among us. The most beautiful
typography of which we as a nation can boast during the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries, is to be found in the black-
letter impressions of our printers." For many years after the
introduction of printing England seems to have been dependent
on France. Caxton and his successors had books printed at
Paris and Rouen. De Worde, Pynson, Faques, Berthelet, and
Copeland got many of their punches and types from Rouen.
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94 Minion, or 7-point, solid
John Day of London (born 1522, died 1584) was the first English
type-founder of marked ability. He was not a founder to the trade :
he made types only for the needs of his own printing office, which
was patronized by Archbishop Parker. For that dignitary he made
the first distinctively English type, a full font of Saxon, which was
intended for iElfric s Saxon Homily and the Saxon Gospels. Reed
says that " the accuracy and regularity with which this fount was
cut was highly creditable to Day's excellence as a founder." About
1572 he cut a font of double pica italic and roman, which was fully
equal to any then in use on the Continent. Archbishop Parker, in
a letter to Lord Burleigh, dated December 13, 1572, writes: "To
the better accomplishment of this worke and other that shall followe,
I have spoken to Daie the printer to cast a new Italian letter, which
he is domge, and it will cost him xl marks ; and loth he and other
Erinters be to printe any Lattin booke, because they will not heare
e uttered, and for that Bookes printed in Englande be in suspition
abroad." Another writer adds that "our Black English letter was
not proper for the printing of a Latin book." These fonts of roman
and italic were made to line with each other, a nicety too often dis-
regarded by other printers. Day's services to typography were
many : he improved the shapes of the Greek letter of his day ; he
made types for music, " lozenge -shaped and hollow "; he cut types
on wood for Hebrew when they were needed in his texts ; he made
signs, mathematical and other, not before cast in type ; while his
works abound with handsome woodcut initials, vignettes and por-
traits, besides a considerable variety of metal " flowers " or border
ornaments. Some of the woodcuts he had made for his books,
of exceptional merit, have never received the consideration they de-
serve. His most noticeable work was Fox's " Book of Martyrs,"
or as it was then called," Acts and Monuments," of which he printed
many editions. His device was a pun on his name — a sleeping
man aroused by his friend and by the rising sun — with the words,
"Arise, for it is Day." Day seems to have been one of the few
prosperous early printers. Strype, in his life of Archbishop Parker,
has this notice: "And with the Archbishop's engravers we may
join his printer Day, who printed ' British Antiquities ' and divers
other books by his order ... for whom the Archbishop had a par-
ticular kindness. . . . Day was more ingenious and industrious in
his art, and probably richer too, than the rest, and so became envied
by the rest of his fraternity, who hindered what they could the sale
of his books ; and he had, in the year 1572, upon his hands, to the
value of two or three thousand pounds worth, a great sum in those
days. His friends procured [for] him from the Dean and Chapter
of St. Paul's a lease of a little shop in St. Paul's Churchyard." The
tablet to his memory has a long inscription from which these lines
are selected : | Two wyves he nad, pertakers of his payne, | Each
wyfe twelve babes, and each of them one more. | Day published
about 250 works. Dibdin says, " (if we except Grafton) Day seems
indeed the Plantin of old English typographers, while his character
and reputation scarcely suffer diminution from a comparison with
those of his illustrious contemporary. "
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Minion, or 7-point, leaded 95
English typography entered upon a period of distinct decadence
after the death of John Day. Christopher Barker, who was queen's
printer in 1582, made this report upon the condition of the trade.
" In King Edward the Sixt his Dayes, Printers and printing began
greatly to increase ; but the provision of letter, and of many other
thinges belonging to printing was so exceeding chargeable that
most of those printers were Dryven throughe necessitie, to com-
pounde before with the booksellers at so low value, as the printers
themselves were most tymes small gayners and often loosers. The
Booksellers now keep no printing house, neither beare any charge
of letter, or other furniture, but onlie pay for the workmanship ... so
that the artificer printer, growing every Daye more and more unable
to provide letter and other furniture . . . will in time be an occasion
of great discredit to the professours of the arte." Barker says there
were in 1582 " twenty-two printing howses in London, where eight
or ten at the most would suffice for all England, yea, and Scotland
too." The first English type-founder to the trade seems to have
been Benjamin Sympson of London, who in 1597 was enjoined by
the Stationers' Company " not to cast any types or to deliver them
without advertising the master and wardens in writing, with the
names of the parties for whom they were intended." This is the
only record concerning Sympson. In the decree of Star Chamber
made July 11, 1637, these four type-founders are named, John Gris-
mand, Thomas Wright, Arthur Nichols, Alexander Fifield, who have
recently been known as- the Star Chamber founders. Of Wright
and Fifield nothing more is known. In 1649 J onn Grismand entered
into a bond of ^300 with two sureties not to print seditious work.
In the same year Arthur Nichols, writing to the Archbishop of Can-
terbury, complained that "of so small benefitt hath his Art bine,
that for four years worke and practice he hath not taken above forty-
eight pounds, and had it not bine for other imploymente he might
have perisht." It is supposed, but not certainly known, that these
four founders contributed the types for the London Polyglot of 1657,
the fourth great Bible of the world, and the best specimen of English
typography in the seventeenth century. They are consequently
now known as the Polyglot founders. Nicholas Nichols, son of the
Arthur Nichols previously mentioned, in 1665 petitioned to be ap-
pointed " Letter Founder to your Majesties Presses." The petition
was granted, but there is no evidence that he was a skilled founder.
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96 Nonpareil, or 6-point, solid
Joseph Moxon, a type-founder of London from 1659, to z ^3» nas distinction
as the first English writer on the practice of typography. He had been a
maker of mathematical instruments, and by reason of his skill and scientific
attainments was appointed hydrographer to the king. In 1676 he published
his first book: " Regulae Trium Ordinum Literarum Typographicarum, or the
Rules of the Three Orders of Print Letters, viz: the Roman, Italick, English,
— Capitals and Small; showing how they are compounded of Geometrick
Figures and mostly made by Rule and Compass." In 1683 he published
" Mechanick Exercises, or the Doctrine of Handy- Works, applied to the Art of
Printing." These volumes are thoroughly illustrated expositions of every
branch of typography from punch-cutting to press work. Moxon says that
letter-cutting had been " kept so concealed among the Artificers of it, that I
cannot leame anyone hath taught it any other, but every one that has used it
Learnt it of his own Genuine Inclination." This leads his reader to infer that
he was entirely self-taught. His early rude types, and his models for types
as laid down in his first book, strengthen this inference; but the careful en-
gravings of the tools of the punch-cutter and his explanations of all the pro-
cesses of type-founding, contained in his second book, show that he was then
thoroughly instructed in every branch of typography and had right to speak
with authority. He was deeply impressed with the great beauty of the Van
Diik types, and makes use of them as models to enforce his theories of the
value of geometrical rules in designing letters. No type-founder of his time,
or afterward, accepted his geometrical formulas, which all founders say are
impracticable, but the information he gives about the practice of other branches
can be read now with pleasure and profit. It does not appear that he made
any reformation in English typography. The printers of London continued to
prefer the types of Dutch founders. Robert Andrews succeeded Moxon, after
1683, and continued the business of type-founding to 1733. His foundry was
probably the richest in matrices of all in England, but he was not regarded a
rood workman. A font of Saxon cut by him for the University Press at Ox-
lord was found unsatisfactory and put away. Most of the types of learned
languages for which the University foundry was famous were cast in matrices
made abroad. Their romans and italics were largely of Dutch manufacture,
and they depended on French founders for Greek, Hebrew, and Oriental types.
In 1700, when the University of Cambridge wished to buy in Paris a font of
the Greek types known as the King's Greek, the French Academy made it a
condition of purchase that all books printed therefrom should bear an imprint
setting forth that the types were from the French king's royal printing house —
a condition which was refused by the University. The Oxford University had
a press of its own as early as 1478, but tn ' s press did little work of value before
1585. Dr. John Fell, the vice-chancellor, presented it with a complete type-
foundry in 1667. Ten years after Mr. Francis Junius enriched the University
Press with a valuable collection of punches and matrices. Most of them are
now obsolete j but Reed says that under able management the foundry is in
active operation, and that the University Press possesses the largest collection
of polyglot matrices of any foundry in the kingdom. The only notable founder
at Oxford during the seventeenth century was Peter Walpergen, a Hollander.
He was succeeded by Sylvester Andrews (before 1714), who was the son of
Robert Andrews, the London founder. James Grover, who began business
about 1675, and Thomas Grover, his son, were successors to one of the old
polyglot founders. They were the first English founders who made the size
diamond. They introduced " Scriptorials, "Cursives," "Court-Hand,"
and several forms of ornamental letters. In 1728 Thomas Grover's daughters,
who were his heirs, tried unsuccessfully to sell the foundry in bulk. William
Caslon's offer for it was refused as too small. For thirty years the foundry
was neglected, and locked up in the house of Nutt the printer, who seems to
have made use of it for his own benefit After the death of the last of Grover's
daughters, the foundry was sold to John James.
£
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Nonpareil, or 6-point, leaded 97
Thomas James, one of the apprentices of Robert Andrews, began business
in London as a type-founder about the year 1710. There is no evidence that
he had any skill as a punch-cutter. It was, probably, a conviction of his own
inability, and of corresponding inability on the part of the few punch-cutters
then in London, that induced him to go to Holland to buy the punches and
matrices he needed to equip his foundry. Rowe Mores, in his " Dissertation on
English Founders," has reprinted some of the curious letters then written from
Holland by Thomas to his brother John who was to be his associate in the busi-
ness. From these letters it appears that the Dutch founders, willing to sell
types, were not so ready to sell matrices, and proposed to part only with those
they esteemed the least. Voskens, with whom James tried to deal, saw in him
a future competitor and gave him scant civility. Cupi and Rolij, two punch-
cutters for Dutch founders, were the men from whom he bought most of his
materials. The price paid for those he got are not stated, but James seems to
have been well satisfied with his purchases, which were effected only after a
deal of suspicion and higgling on both sides. With these matrices the brothers
commenced and for many years maintained a successful business in London.
Thomas James earned an unenviable prominence as the first antagonist to
stereotyping. In 1729 William Ged of Edinburgh, who had invented a use-
ful process of stereotyping, was induced to associate with him Thomas James
as a partner. James played false from the beginning, and supplied him with
worn types to bring the invention into discredit. By his connivance the com-
positors made errors, and the pressmen bruised the plates. After three years
of hopeless struggle with these covert enemies Ged abandoned his work in
London and returned to Edinburgh, where he printed from stereotype plates
an edition of Sallust before his death in 1749. In 1781 Dr. Tilloch of Edin-
burgh, with Foulis, then printer to the University at Glasgow, reinvented a
new process of stereotype with which they printed several books. Van der
May in 1705, and Firmin-Didot, in 1795, also made practicable plates, but the
art of stereotype was not really successful until it was perfected by Stanhope
in 1800. The business of James declined before his death in 1736. His son
John continued the policy of his father in buying matrices from other small
foundries, but with a steadily diminishing hold on English printers. Nearly
all of the types of this foundry were out of fashion. At his death in 1772 all
the material passed by purchase into the hands of the antiquary, Rowe Mores,
who did not choose to continue the business and who found it difficult to sell
the matrices. Mores says that the " waste and pye" of this foundry contained
upwards of six thousand matrices, the assorting of which gave him great
trouble, but that he was gratified to find in the rubbish of punches some orig-
inals of Wynkyn de Worde. " They are truly vetustate form&que etsqualore
venerabiles." At the auction sale in 1782 the contents of the foundry were
dispersed, Dr. Fry buying the matrices of the curious characters. "With this
sale," says Reed, "disappeared the last of the old English foundries."
13
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98 Agate, or bk-point, solid
William Caslon of London (born 1692, died 1766), the ablest type-founder of
the eighteenth century, was one of many eminent punch-cutters who never
served a regular apprenticeship to the trade. In his boyhood he had been
taught the art of a general engraver on metal, and was employed .for most
of his time at engraving gun locks and barrels, and letters and ornaments
for bookbinders' stamps. About the year 1719, when he was twenty-seven
years of age, his marked ability in making letters attracted the attention
of the printers John Watts and William Bowyer, who advised him to devote
himself to making punches for types. His first commission was the cutting
of punches for a font of Arabic, which was so well done that Bowyer, Watts,
and Bettenham, another printer, lent him £500 to establish him in business
as a type-founder. His next task was the cutting of a font of Coptic, which
he did with equal ability. A full font of pica with its mated italic perfected
by him, and issued to the trade about the year 1721, was so much better
than any then in use, either English or Dutch, that his superior abilities as a
founder were admitted without question by all printers and publishers. How
he organized his foundry, how he secured proper workmen, and obtained a
full knowledge of the technicalities of this jealously guarded trade, has never
been fully told, but the work was well done. In 1734 he issued a sheet of
specimens showing twelve faces of roman and italic, seven faces of two-lines,
seven faces of flowers, and seventeen faces of foreign letters — all of which,
with three exceptions, were cut by his own hands in fourteen years. Many
of the roman and italic faces are now in use under the name of Old-style.
Nichols wisely says : " For clearness and uniformity, for the use of the reader
and the student, it is doubtful whether it [the Caslon fashion of letterlhas
been excelled by any modern production." In 1742 Caslon's eldest son Will-
iam (known in the trade as Caslon n) was admitted to partnership, and
continued the business until his death in 1778. The son was a good founder
and fully maintained the reputation of the house, but he showed an ungen-
erous depreciation of the work of his father's old apprentice, Joseph Jack-
son. The quality of its productions is fairly shown in the " Specimen of
Printing Types, by W. Caslon & Sons, letter-founders in London," which is In-
serted in Luckombe's " Concise History of the Origin and Progress of Print-
ing," of 1770. No other foundry of that period, nor for a long time after,
showed a series of faces so symmetrical. William Caslon m succeeded to
the management of the business, but in 1792 he sold his share in it to his
mother and his brother Henry's widow, and bought the foundry of the
deceased Joseph Jackson. Under his management the Jackson foundry was
much enlarged and improved. About the year 1803 the fourth William Caslon
was admitted to partnership, and the name of the firm became W. Caslon &
Son. In 1807 the senior partner retired, dying in 1833. His son William Cas-
lon iv added to the stock and extended the business of the foundry, but to
some extent damaged his reputation as an intelligent founder by an unsuc-
cessful attempt at making snort, wedge-shaped types, intended to be fitted
and fastened on the periphery of a cylindrical printing machine. In 1819 he
sold his foundry to Blake, Garnett & Co., who removed the material to Shef-
field, where its work was afterward done under the name of Stephenson,
Blake & Co. The older Caslon foundry continued to be managed by Mrs.
William Caslon, mother to Caslon m. She was an active member of the
Association of Type-founders, and of marked business sagacity. Her great
error was her unwillingness to conform to the fashions of the day in type.
She died in 1795. The business was carried on with ability by Mrs. Henry
Caslon until her death in 1809. Her son Henry, in partnership with John
Catherwood until 1821, and afterward with Martin W. Livermore, continued
as the nominal head of the house until his death in 1874. This fifth genera-
tion was the last of the Caslons, but the house is still flourishing, as success-
ful and as highly esteemed as ever, under the management of T. W. Smith.
After a neglect of nearly fifty years the Caslon cut of letter was restored to
favor. In 1843 Whittingham of the Chiswick Press was requested by the
publisher Pickering to reprint "The Diary of Lady Willougnby," a fiction
of the seventeenth century, in an appropriate old-style dress of letter for
which he had no suitable face of type. At his request the Caslon Foundry
took out of its vaults the matrices for great-pHmer cut by the first Caslon,
and cast a small font for this book. This old-style face met with such ap-
proval that all the other matrices of the Caslon old-style were revived.
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Agate, or 5i~point, leaded 99
John Baskerville of Birmingham (born 1706, died 1775) was Caslon's ablest
rival. Like him he served no apprenticeship to type-making. His first
serious business was that of a writing master, and a designer and cutter of
letters on tablets and tombstones. Afterward he began the manufacture of
japanned wares, in the sale of which he was remarkably successful. In 1750
he began to cut punches, and to create typographic material for printing a
book which he intended should more clearly show his notions about types
and printing. He says he spent six years and six hundred pounds before he
made a satisfactory type. His first book, " Virgil," in great-primer letter, es-
tablished his reputation as an able designer of types, yet it met with much
hostile criticism as unnecessarily slender and delicate. His second attempt,
a " Greek Testament " in great-primer, was generally condemned. The types
of this book were too stiff and too condensed to please tastes formed on
earlier models. His editions of the " Paradise Lost," the Bible, and the
" Common Prayer," fully regained for him the reputation he had damaged
by his Greek. In 1758 he had cut eight fonts of the more used sizes of roman,
and was then ready to receive orders from the printing trade. Although
his types and his printing were much admired by critics, his types were
not bought by printers, who objected to them as weak and unfit for wear.
They preferred the stronger ones of Caslon. In 1760 he tried ineffectually to
sell his types, and to retire from the business of printing, because he was
heartily tired of it, and repented that he had ever attempted it. Four years
after Baskerville's death, his widow sold all his types and type-making
material to the Soci6t6 Litteraire-Typographique, who removed them to
Kehl, near Strasburg, where, under the management of Beaumarchais, they
made use of some of the types for a complete edition in seventy volumes of
the works of Voltaire. So ended the labors of one of the great British type-
founders. Alexander Wilson of Glasgow was another competitor of the Cas-
lons. His education had been that of a " surgeon's assistant or apothecary,"
but a chance visit to a type-foundry in London led him to consider, and
finally to attempt, the making of types by a new method. In this plan he
associated with him John Baine. What the new method was has never been
told, but it must have been impracticable, for their first types, sold at St. An-
drew's in 1742, were made by the old approved method. The partners seem to
have been very successful, selling types not only in Scotland but in Ireland
and North America In 1749 Baine withdrew and established a separate
foundry at Dublin. Wilson's best production was a font of double pica Greek,
specially cut for an edition of Homer, in four folio volumes, admirably printed
by Robert and Andrew Foulis, and intended for Flaxman's celebrated illus-
trations. In 1760 Wilson was appointed a professor of practical astronomy
in the University of Glasgow. The type-foundry was removed to that city,
and its management devolved upon Wilson's elder sons. This Glasgow
foundry soon became a formidable rival to the London founders, for it under-
sold them in England. In 1825 the proprietors of the foundry were Andrew
and Alexander Wilson, son and grandson of the originator. In 1830 Andrew
Wilson died. His sons Alexander and Patrick decided in 1832 to establish a
branch in Edinburgh. In 1834 the Glasgow foundry was transferred to Lon-
don, where, after many vicissitudes, it was finally merged in that of the Cas-
lon*. The Edinburgh branch, known as Marr, Gallie, & Co., was also trans-
ferred to London, and did business as the Marr Type-Founding Company.
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100 Pearl, or 5-point, solid
Thomas Cottrell, one of the apprentices printing' trade, and Fry was compelled,
of the Caslon house, began a type business much against his will, to cut an entirely
on his own account in 1757, in partnership new series of faces. The Caslon style was
with a fellow-apprentice, Joseph Jackson ; selected as the most salable, but before the
but Jackson left him in 1759 to go to sea. cutting of the series had been completed,
Cornell's first specimen book was proba- a fickle public taste had put the Caslon
bly published in 1766. It shows roman and style aside, and showed its preference for
italic in sizes from five-line to brevier, with newer forms. In 1782 Fry bought the
a new form of engrossing, Domesday, and larger part of the old James foundry, which
five pages of " flowers ,T or border orna- was rich in foreign and learned characters,
ments. His styles were of the approved He died in 1787, and was succeeded by
Caslon model, but not equal to those of his his son Edmund Fry, who afterward ad-
master. Mores says he made " types of mitted as partners Isaac Steele and George
great bulk, as high as twelve-line pica." Knowles. In 1799 this foundry published
Cottrell died in 1785. In 1794 his foundry " Pantographia: containing accurate copies
became the property of Robert Thorne, of all the known Alphabets in the World,"
one of his apprentices, who, in his speci- in which were shown the characters of
men book of 1798, appears to have dis- nearly two hundred languages. Although
carded all of his master's fonts, and to this foundry attained a high rank for its
have created an entirely new series, re- oriental and "learned" types, it never
markable for their lightness, grace, and achieved a commercial success. In 1828 it
uniformity. But great changes had been was sold to William Thorowgood, through
going on in public taste. Light faces were whom it ultimately became a part of the
disapproved; bold and black faces were present Fann street letter-foundry of Sir
demanded. To meet this demand, Thorne Charles Reed's Sons,
showed in 1805 a full series of " improved Joseph Jackson began the work of type-
types " of the bold-face which so seriously founding as an apprentice of Caslon I.
vulgarized the book printing of the first He was taught every branch of the busi-
half of this century. Subsequent speci- ness but that of punch-cutting. This jeal-
mens from his foundry showed still blacker ously guarded mystery was practised only
and more unsightly faces of large romans, by Caslon and his son in a private room :
but they were much admired and freely but Jackson bored a hole in the wainscot
bought by job printers in quest of novelty, of an adjoining room at different times, and
Thorne died in 1820. His business was carefully watched every process. When
bought and carried on by William Tho- Jackson thought he was able to do the
rowgood, who materially enlarged the work, he cut a punch, which he showed
foundry with new fonts of foreign charac- with great pride to his master, expecting
ters — some cut under his own direction, to get his approval. But Caslon was much
some bought abroad, but most of them displeased; instead of commendation he
were from the very full collection of the gave him a blow and abuse, and threat-
modern Polyglot Foundry of Dr. Fry. In ened to send him to jail if he repeated
1838 Thorowgood admitted Robert Besley his offense. Jackson's mother soothed his
to partnership. On Thorowgood's retire- wounded feelings, bought him new tools,
ment in 1849, Benjamin Fox, a punch-cut- and encouraged him to continue his punch-
ter of ability, was admitted, and the firm cutting studies. Here it may be said that
was known as Robert Besley & Co. Mr. nearly every one of the eminent English
(afterward Sir) Charles Reed, a printer, punch-cutters attained his proficiency in
succeeded in 1861, and the foundry was this art, not by the smooth road of appren-
then known as that of Reed & Fox. Sir ticeship and special instruction, but by
Charles Reed died in 1881, and the busi- breaking through the obstructions made
ness was continued by his sons, one of by masters and fellow-workmen. Jackson
whom was Talbot Baines Reed, the author served his time as an apprentice, but again
of •• A History of the Old English Letter offended his master by a request for more
Foundries," to whom the writer is indebted wages, for which offense he was discharged
for much of the information given in these from the foundry. Then he and his fellow-
pages concerning English founders. apprentice Cottrell formed a copartnership
Joseph Fry began business in 1764 as a and began business for themselves in 1757.
type-founder in Bristol. He had been edu- They did not find enough profit in their
cated as a physician, and had distinction venture for two, and Jackson soon aban-
as a ripe scholar, but he was impelled to doned the work and went to sea as an
the mechanical trade of type-founding as armorer. On his return he made a new
Moxon had been — by "genuine incfina- attempt at establishing a type-foundry, not
tion," and a strong desire to emulate the with Cottrell, but through the aid of two
achievements of Baskerville, whose styles fellow-workmen, who allowed him £6a 8s.
of letter he made the models of his earlier per annum for his living expenses. On
types. His first partners were William this narrow money basis ne laid the foun-
Pine, a printer, and Isaac Moore, a white- dation of what afterward became one of the
smith. Bristol was found too small a field largest of British type-foundries. His first
for the new enterprise, and they moved work, in 1763, met the approval of Bowyer,
the foundry to London. Here they met a the great printer of London, who told him
serious disappointment. The Baskerville that he had been the means of old Caslon
style of face was decidedly rejected by the riding in his coach, and that perhaps he
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Pearl, or 5-point, leaded 101
might be the means of doing' the same for his successor by Caslon's purchase of the
Jackson. Even the elder Caslon unbent foundry. John Nichols, the printer, lent
his austerity, and told his disparaging- son young Figgins the money needed to estab-
that Jackson's art and skill would yet com- lish him in business. He began, in 1793,
mand respect. In 1773 he had organized with a great undertaking — the cutting of
a small but valuable foundry, and had the double english (commenced by Joseph
earned reputation as a skilful mechanic Jackson) intended for the Macklin " Bl-
and punch-cutter. The types he made ble." Reed says : " Of the excellence of
for a facsimile edition of the " Domesday the performance both as a facsimile and
Book," admirably printed by Nichols in as a work of art, a reference to the splen-
two folio volumes, extorted praise from did Bible itself, and the no less splendid
every type-founder and every man of let- edition of Thomson's • Seasons,' in which
ters. He was equally successful in his the same type was used in 1797, is the most
facsimiles of the Greek types of the «• Co- eloquent testimony. Mr. Figgins received
dexBezz." His most important work was the honour of being named on the title-
the double english roman made for the page of the latter work, which still remains
" Macklin Bible," in seven volumes royal one of the finest achievements of English
folio. Jackson did not live to see the typography." He was as remarkable for
conclusion of this work, which had to be his industry as for his skill. No foundry
supplemented by the labor of a former ap- of the time equaled his in the number or
prentice ; but the design of the letter was general merit of its productions. He cut
his, and Nichols says it was a pattern of a new face of Greek for the Oxford Press,
the most perfect symmetry to which the new forms of Persian, Telugu, Domesday,
art bad arrived. He died in 1793, and his Hebrew with points, a facsimile of Cax-
foundry was bought by William Caslon III. ton's first letter, and a series of intricate
Baskerville's ablest successor, not to his German-texts. After a general commenda-
foundry or business, but to his skill and tion of his work, Hansard adds : " I feel it
style, was his apprentice Robert Martin, particularly incumbent on me to add . . .
whose brother William, in 1790, became that he has strayed less into the folly of
die head of a small but famous foundry, fat-faced preposterous disproportions than
Boydell and Nicol had matured plans for either Thorne, Fry, or Caslon." Mr. Fig-
their great edition of " Shakespeare," to gins relinquished business in 1836, and died
be printed by Bulmer, and William Mar- in 1844. His two sons, Vincent Figgins II.
tin was engaged by them to make " imita- and James Figgins, succeeded in 1836.
tions of the sharp and fine letter used by Vincent Figgins II. died in i860, leaving
the French and Italian printers." The the business to be carried on by James
appearance of this book, soon followed by Figgins I. and his son James Figgins II.,
an equally admirable edition of Milton, the latter being the present proprietor.
was an unexpected revelation of the pos- William Miller, once the foreman of the
sibilities of typography. Under the able Wilson Foundry at Glasgow, began busi-
management of Bulmer, the Shakespeare ness on his own account at Edinburgh in
Press printed many admirable books, of 1809. From the beginning his foundry
which these are the most esteemed : Dib- had a remarkable success ; it was a rival
din's '* Typographical Antiquities," the not only of the Glasgow, but of the London
" Decameron," M'Creery's " The Press," founders. In 1832 William Richard was
and the " Poems" of Goldsmith and Par- admitted as partner; in 1838 the name of
nell. for most of which Martin provided the firm was changed to Miller & Richard.
the types. All were based on the Bas- Reed says that this foundry was the first
kerville models. But these types were to introduce successfully type-casting ma-
admirable only when carefully printed, chinery in Great Britain. William Miller
Martin was not able to change the incom- died in 1843, and the business was carried
ing fashion for fat and bold faces. He on by Richard and his son until 1868. Since
died in 18x5, and his foundry came to an the retirement of Richard, senior, the
end. the Caslons taking the more valuable foundry has been managed by his sons
portions of his collections. J. M. Richard and W. M. Richard.
Vincent Figgins was the favored appren- Anthony Bessemer, the inventor, was
tice of and expected successor to Joseph a founder of marked ability, in Lon-
Jackson. but he was prevented from being don, between the years 1821 and 1833.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
102 Diamond, or ty-point, solid
In hia twentieth year, Havener had distinguished
himaelf by the erection at Haarlem in HolTaBd of
pumping enginea. Before he waa twenty-five year* of
age he waa elected a member of the Academic at Paria
for hia improvement* in the microscope. He cut the
diamond type need by Pickering for hie diamond edi-
tions. The foundry waa dispersed in 1832. Hia eon
Henry waa a maater of the mechanic! of the trade, and
patented improrementa in type-founding before he waa
The first type-founder in Mew York wai
Mappa, who had successfully practiaed typi
Holland. He waa obliged to leave hia c
political cauaea. Hia name appears it
Directory for 1792. Hia foundry waa
twenty-Are yeara old.
Richard/ '*
don
him
by R M. Wood, who in partnerabip wit
and T. Sharwnod continued the buahieaa. After their
owned by
Auatin, a noted punch-cutter, had a foundry
George Auatin, hia eon, auc-
.__ _ ..n hiadea^ ^ J
. Wood, who in i
wncru mhuuij ui bb ouiw ivr tauacj w
type-foundry. To prove hia ability to ma)
appended to hia petition impreaaiona from tj
•aid he had made. The petition waa gram
death the buaineaa eeaaed, and their collection waa
diaperaed.
Louie John Poucbee waa a type-founder by Didot'a
polymatype method at London in 1819, but waa un-
•ucceaaful. In 1830 he abandoned the buaineaa, and
•old at auction twenty thousand matrices, punehea,
etc., and thirty-fire tone of type.
Abel Buell of Killing worth, Connecticut, ia accred-
ited, on imperfect evidence, as one of the early type-
founder* in the United State*. Hia regular buaineaa
waa that of a whitesmith. It doe* not appear that be
waa ever in a type-foundry, or that be ever received
any instruction in the art, but in 1789 he petitioned the
General Assembly of hia State for money to establish a
» , «s ..,_ ...,„._ •,> meke types, he
rom types that he
e petition was granted, but hia
foundry did not prosper, and was soon extinct.
In 1768 David Mitchelaon, a die-amber from London,
attempted to establish a type-foundry at Boston, "
did not succeed. It ia possible that Buell got hi '
knowledge of type- founding from Mitchelaon.
In 1773 Christopher Bauer (or Sower, as be spelled
it in English), second of the name, eaUbliabed a type-
foundry at Germantown, near Philadelphia. This
foundry waa managed by Justus Pox, who seems to
bare been expert in many mechanical arts. In 1784
Pox purchased the foundry, and with hia son con-
tinued the buaineaa until hia death in 1805. In 1808
Fox's son sold the foundry to Samuel Sower, son of
Christopher Sauer, who had previously tried to estab-
lish a type-foundry at Baltimore, which attempt waa
successfully renewed by him in 1815.
Jacob Bey, a German, began a second foundry at
Germantown about 1774.
Benjamin Franklin when in Paris bought from P.
8. Fournier, the inventor of the point system of type-
bodies, a complete equipment for a type-foundry which
he intended should be established at Philadelphia. To
this end he had his grandson B. F. Baehe receive in-
struction from Fournier, that he might be qualified to
manage the foundry. Franklin and hia grandson ar-
rived in Philadelphia in 1775, and began the business
of type-founding, but they were not successful. Thomas
aays that they did not or could not make good types.
The foundry waa neglected, and Baehe turned hia atten-
tion to printing.
John Baine (once partner with Alexander WOaon
of Glasgow) and hit grandson begsn a type-foundry in
Philadelphia in the year 1785. They were the first
•killed founders in the city, and soon had full employ -
e of their most important orders being a targe
grandson abandoned the buaineaa and removed to Au-
gusta, Georgia, where be died in 1790.
About the year 1775 Benjamin Mecom, a printer
and nephew of Benjamin Franklin, attempted to make
stereotype plates. He east plates for a number of
pagea of the New Testament, but never completed the
work, and finally abandoned the undertaking. The
first book stereotyped in the United States waa
" The Larger CatechUm." of 149 pagea. It bears the
imprint of J. Watta ft Co., New York. 1818. B. & J. a type-foundry in"
Collins and Collins ft Hannay were the successors of
Watts, who returned to England in 1815.
was Adam O.
type-making in
jia country for
political cauaea. Hia name appears in the New York
Directory for 1792. His foundry waa fairly equipped
with Dutch faces, but bis stock of romans waa poor.
He waa not successful. In 1796 be entered the service
of Binny ft Ronaldaon, and was with them three years.
Some of his faces appear in their book of specimens.
He then went into the service of the Holland Company.
He died in 1828.
The first founder in the United Statea of marked
ability waa Archibald Binny of Scotland, who bad
made types in a small way at Edinburgh. In 1796, in
connection with Jamea Ronaldaon, he established a
type-foundry at Philadelphia, which aoon took the lend
of the other foundries in that city. In 1811 he patented
a valuable improvement to the mould — a apnng lever
which gave a quick return motion to the matrix, and
enabled the type-caster to make more types with lens
exertion. He made a machine for the automatic rub-
bing of type, but it waa not successful. He retired in
1819. Jamea Ronaldaon and Richard Rooaidaon con-
tinued the buaineaa.
In 1820 Lawrence Johnson, a printer and native of
England, eatahliahed a stereotype foundry in Philadel-
phia. In 1883 he formed a partnership with George
P. Smith for the purpose of buying the type-foundry
of Richard Ronaldaon. Under the new inanagenaent
the operation* of the foundry were largely extended.
In 1843 George F. 8mith withdrew. In 1845 John-
son admitted to partnership Thomaa MacKellar, Jeans
F. Smith, and Richard 8mith, who had been trusted
employees of this house. Peter A. Jordan waa added
afterward. Before his death in 1880 Johnson aold the
foundry to hia junior partners, who continued the txnsi-
ness under the name of MacKellar, Smiths ft Jordan,
and afterward of MacKellar, Smiths ft Jordan Com-
pany, but the house has not lost its old name of the
Johnson Foundry. John F. Smith waa born January
90, 1815, and died November 1, 1889. Peter A.
Jordan waa born in Philadelphia, 80th of May, 1822,
and died there 25th of March, 1884. Richard Smith
died September 8, 1894. In 1892 the MacKellar,
Smiths ft Jordan Company became the Philadelphia
branch of the American Type Founders Company.
In 1804 Elihu White and William Wing of Bart
ford, Connecticut, undertook to make typea without
any experience in type-founding, and even without
any knowledge whatever of the construction of the ap-
proved form of type-mould. After repeated failures
they were obliged to send one of their workmen to the
foundry of Binny ft Ronaldaon of Philadelphia, hart he
failed to get the knowledge needed. After doing s
limited buaineaa in Hartford, White separated from
Wing, moved bis foundry to New York in 1810, and
made type ia an old building on Beach street. Fore
aeeingtbe rapid growth of cities in what waa then the
Far West, he eatahliahed branch foundries in Buffalo
and Cincinnati. Dying in 1888, the buaineaa waa con-
tinued by his son John T. White. He was succeeded
by Norman White, and when hia aon waa admitted to
partnership the firm-naase was changed to Charles T.
White ft Co. Charles T. White retired in 1864, after
selling the type-foundry to his employees, A. D. Fanner,
Andrew Little, and John Bentley, who carried on
business under the name of Parmer, Little ft Co,
Andrew Little and John Bentley retired in 1892.
A. D. Farmer died in 1886. The business in now
carried on by Wmiam Parmer, under the name of
A. D. Farmer's Son Type Pounding Co.
In 1808 Robert Lothian of Scotland tried and failed
to establish a type-foundry in New York. His son
George B. Lothian, who had been taught the trade of
stereotyping in the ateraotypa foundries of John Watts
of New York and B. ft 7. Collins of Philadelphia., and
had alao received instruction from hia father and from
ry in Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania. It waa
ful enterprise, and Lothian l e iaii m d to
In 1822 ho undertook to make type far
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Diamond, or ty-point, leaded 103
the firm of Harper & Brother*. The faces of Greek
which he cot for the Anthou Classical Series were very
ataca admired. After hia death in 1851 the Lothian
foundry waa aold to Peter C. Cortelyou and W. H.
Oifimg. When Cortelyou died ia 1875.1
tkit foundry ceased, and ita <
Edwin and Richard Starr, who had been inducted
ia the tnde by Elihu White, made an wisucceasful at-
tempt to eatabllah a type-foundry in Pittsburgh, Penn-
sylvania. Equally onfortonate in other attempt* in
Albany and New York, they were afterward employees
in the foundries of New York and Boston.
Jamaa Conner, a printer of New York, began busi-
aaaj as a stc i ee t ypcr in that city in the year 1837. He
ande the frat stereotype edition of the New Testament.
He also earned a good reputation as the publisher
ia the United States of the Bible in folio form. To
the baaineaa of stereotyping be soon after added that of
type-founding, in which he was remarkably successful.
By the aid of Edwin Starr, then in hia employ, he made
the electrotype matrices which enabled Urn largely to
isrreese the faces of has foundry. The Conner Foundry
was the list in thai country to introduce light faces.
After the death of James Conner in 1861 the foundry
1 by hia sons under the name of James
*. William Crawford Conner, the eldest
son, waa horn in New York, 4th of December, 1821,
and died there on the 36th of April, 1881. James
Madison Conner waa horn in Boston the 3d of Novem-
ber, 1835, and died in New York on the 14th of July,
U8T. The grandsons of the founder, Benjamin F. and
Charles 8., managed affairs for the five years preceding
UBS, when they merged the business in that of the
American Type Founders Company.
WiBiem Hagar, who had been an employee and after-
ward a partner in the firm of Charles T. White & Co.,
began baaineaa as a type-founder in New York about
MM. At one time he owned the patent right of the
■race type-casting machine, and devoted much of his
tbne to Hs introduction in the United States and in
foreign countries. He died in 1868, leering the foundry
at he ■sasejrd by his sons, who afterward abandoned
the basaneaa. The foundry is now extinct
David Bruce (born in Scotland, 1770 ; died in New
Turk, 1857; was the head of a type-founding family
whkn has dome much for the improvement of the arts
af atmetypina; and type-making. After serving an
mpualimnhip to printing in Edinburgh, he emigrated
Is Hew York in 1798, where he followed his trade as a
snasmsB In partnership with hia younger brother
Qserge Brace, he began business in New York as a
anatir printer in 1806. Humors having reached them
ef the advantages of the new art of stereotyping, David
want to Leaden in 1813, and ineffectually tried to get
the information he desired from the inventor, Earl
ttaahnpt. From other persons be gut, as he thought,
enough of bints or suggestions to warrant him begin-
mag the work. On his return to New York be added
aannitjuisn, to Ms business, hi which he made a marked
sascees. Three of the moat valuable aids to storre-
tyutag are has anqnestioned inventions : the shaving
smcaJae, which enables the stereotyper to make all
ithe«
any, which firmly holds the stereotype plate, and yet
allows its ready release or change to any new position ;
the dove-tailed packing box with sliding cover, which
secures plates from injury and permits rough handling
in transportation. In 1833 he withdrew from business,
but continued to experiment in type-founding with use-
ful results.
David Bruce, Jr., son of David, at an early age gave
great attention to the mechanics of type-casting. The
machines of Wing & White, of Starr & Sturdevant
of Boston, and William M. Johnson of Hempstead, had
been tried and rejected by the trade. The first ma-
chines of Bruce were equally unsatisfactory, but in
183S he made a machine which was generally adopted
and had no worthy rival for more than fifty years. He
also invented a type-rubbing and dressing machine
of merit, and was fairly successful as a punch-cutter.
Many meritorious forms of script and ornamental
letter now put aside as old-fashioned were designed
and engraved by bis hand.
George Bruce (born in Edinburgh, in 1781 ; died in
New York, 1866) emigrated to this country in 1795.
After serving apprenticeship as a printer in Philadel-
phia and working as a compositor in New York, he be-
came the business partner of hia brother David. Their
new enterprise of stereotyping was seriously hindered
by the shapes of the types they had to use. Types as
then made had no shoulder. The beard or neck sloped
at a very long angle from face to shank. The plaster
used in stereotyping filled these sharp angles, from
which it was removed with difficulty. Breakages
which defaced the mould and spoiled the cast were
frequent After many unsuccessful efforts to induce
type-founders to make types with square shoulders, the
brothers undertook to make types for themselves.
They began with the materials unsuccessfully used by
the brothers Starr. Their first specimen book is dated
1816. George Bruce waa an enthusiastic and inde-
fatigable punch-cutter, who found his greatest pleasure,
even at advanced age, ia cutting letters, many of which
are still admired as models of good form. Hia services
to type-founding by bis system of geometrical bodies are
related in this book in the chapter on the Point System.
David Wolfe Bruce (born in New York, in 1823).
the youngest son of George, succeeded to the business of
George Bruce, which be continued, in partnership with
James Lindsay, under the name of George Brace's Son
At Co. Between the years 1868 and 1876 he produced
an unusually complete series of " penman " scripts,
the most difficult and the most expensive feat of type-
founding ever undertaken in this country. David
Wolfe Bruce retired from business in 1800, transfer-
ring the entire foundry to his employees Henry M.
Hall, Vilinder B. Munson, and Robert Lindsay. The
younger Lindsay died in the same year ; Hall retired
in 1896. The business is now conducted by Munson,
under the name of V. B. Munson.
James Lindsay was born in Glasgow, Scotland, in
1825, and waa taught the trade in the foundry of
Alexander Wilson of Edinburgh. He died in Brook-
lyn on the 20th of September, 1879. He was a thor-
oughly educated type-founder and a punch-cutter of
ability.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
104 Brilliant, or l-point, solid
Foundry. Whan Hawk* retired the b u s in ess wii reor-
_ .. -._- ganisod — aa incor p orated company.
on tit* 20th of September, 1876. Hit first knowledge of Mardar, Lum k Co. established a type-foundry la San
tvps-foundingwa* received In Pittsburgh in the year 1820. Franaiseo in 1878. of which N. C. Hawks was resident
Returning to Now York, he became an employee and afUr- partner and manafar. In 1884 the foundry was told to
ward a partner of George Brut. At his death he was Palmar k Bay.
proprietor of the plant of George B. Lothian. John Bran began a type-foundry at HallUay •tract.
Samuel Nelson Dickinson (born 1801. died 1848) waa Baltimore, in 1864. In 1887 a corporation wu formed
a notable type-founder of Borton. He wee taught the under the title of the John Byan Co. John Byan, the
trade of a printer in the State of New York, but after, founder of the buelncM and lint president of the earn-
ward worked ae a compositor in the Boston Type and pany, died Hay 8. 1888. It is now a branch of the Ameri-
Btereotype Foundry. In 182B he began business as a can Type Founders Company.
ir printer. Unable to get from any type-foundry of Holmes k Curtis began a type-foundry in I
itr the types bis taste demanded, he undertook to street, Boston, in 1847. Holmes retired in 180
hare them made. The style known as the Scotch-face Curtis continued the business for ten or twelve years,
was modelled by him in 1817, but eut and eaet to his B. 2. Mitchell waa admitted as partner. MiteheU. 4
order by Alexander Wilson k Son, of Edinburgh. The 1880 ; Curtis died in 1889. The foundry was continued
matriees imported by him were the first types of the Diekin- by Caroline Curtis, executrix, under the name of Curtis
son Foundry in 18% and were reecWed with marked favor, k Mitchell, but it afterward continued under the name of
The Ant specimen-book of the Dickinson Foundry, pub- Palmer k Pruden.
F "'" ■ * " • ' ' ■ bllity. - ■ ~ ~ —
i death
■ under the iuu of Phelps, Dal ton At do. It is Thomas A. Wiley. _la March, 1887. M'Leester bought
llshed in 1842, shows a refined taste and marked ability, Samuel C. Collins and Alexander M'Lsester began t
and served as a stimulus to other founders. At his death business of type-founding at Philadelphia in April, l&
the foundry passed to other hand*, and for some yean did Collins died July 13, 1883. His interest was bought by
«-—'-— ■ — — --•- - •-- ■- * - ■ —-- s_ wiiey. In March, 1887. M-Lsester bone" '
type-founding at Philadelphia in
1 July 1% 1883. His interest was
e of Phelps, Dalton * Co. It is Thomas A. — " " "~~ "
Pklnacy, of the old firm, and Is Wiley's int
an important branch of the American Type Founders the — — g- „ _ _. ,
Company. merged in the Amerlean Type Founders Company.
Michael Dalton, of the old firm of Phelps k Dalton, and Bamhart Bros, k Bpindler (A. M. Bamhart. War
afterward of the Dickinson Type Foundry of Boston, was Bamhart, and Charles K. Bpindler) began type founding
born in Boston the 23d of May, 1800. and died there on the at 106 Bast Madison street. Chicago, in the year 1868. They
24th of October, 1879. He practised type-founding for mads four brsnche* : The St. Louis Printers' Supply Com-
n early sixty years. PT • *"»• Croat Western Type Foundry, Omaha ; The
Nathan Lyman, born in Coventry, Conn., in 1790, be- Great Western Type Foundry, Kansas City ; The Minne-
came an employee of EUhu White, of Hartford, in 1810. sota Type Foundry Company. St. Paul. In 1801 the
In 1829 he was connected with the Albany type-foundry proprietors were : A. M. Bamhart, B. B a rn h a r t, A. S.
of B. Starr ft Co. In 1836 he removed to Buffalo, and Barnhart, 8. G. Stein. Charles B. Spindler, Charles
there began a business afterward hnown as the Buffalo Murray, and W. H. French. Since 1891 branches have
Type Foundry. He died at Buflhlo on the 16th of Feb- been established in Seattle and San Francisco,
ruary, 1873. The Lyman Foundry is now a branch of the The type-foundry of Mardar, Luse k Co. of Chicago was
. „ . „ •lishedln- — " ' -—---.--- •
typers In Albany between the years 1825 and 1831. After On the first day of October, I - _ _-_ —
1831 this firm-name disappears from the Albany Directory. D. Sehofleld A Co., and the next year to Schofield, Mar-
Richard Starr k Co. issued a specimen book of the Al- der k Co. (David Schofield, John Mardar, Henry Porter).
bany Type Foundry under the daU of October 90, 1&». In Porter sold his interest
the eireular-letter It is claimed that " one of this concern 1886. In 1889 Collins retired, selling his interest to A. P.
has been engaged la letter-cutting for mure than fifteen Luse, and the firm became Mardar, Loss k Co, After the
rears, and that he has eut more than one-half of all the great fire of 1870, Carl Mueller became a partner, and so
letter now cast by all the Amerlean Founders." They remained until July, 1883, when he sold his interest to
„ ..., _,__j»ers. In July, 1883, the bu sin ess wi
rates. In 1830-31 the business of this foundry was carried ganlssd as a stoek company, of which John Harder was
on nndsr the name of Starr, Little k Co. In 1833 Starr president, A. P. Loss, viee-preeident, and John W.
and Little had separated, each conducting a separate bust- Mardar, secretary. Collins died in 1873 : Mueller In
ness. Starr's name disappears from the Directory la 1840. 1886 ; Lum in 1891. It is now a braneh of the American
and Little'c in 1848. Type Founders Company.
- - ' ---...-. The Central Type Foun<
been apprenticed to a bookbinder, associated with Bohert Missouri, In the year 1875, by C. Sehranbatadter and
Packard in 1813, and they began business as printers. About J. A. St. John, formerly of the Boston Tvne Pnuulrv
1832 they added the new branch of stereotyping, and soon In 1892 St. John retired, and the business
-which were driven by steam-power from a small upright The type-foui_ ,
steam-engine of German sllvsr of domestic manufacture. City, Missouri, was there established la the year 1878 by
From 1824 to 1839 Van Benthuyscn 4c Paekard were Joint John Reton. His son John B. Beton was admitted aa
proprietors of the " Albany Argus " and State printers, partner in 1882. It Is now a branch of the American
Type-founding (of text-types only) waa continued, but Type Founders Company.
only for the needs of that house, by the successor, Charles The type-foundry of Lewis Pelonse k Co., Philadelphia.
Van Bsnthursen. waa there established in the year 1841 by Edward Pelonae ;
•dick Starr, 'a stereotyper in New York, Boston, in the same year the foundry was sold to Levis Palouss .
el phis, between 1824 and 1832. died in Illinois In 1875 ths flrm-nams was changed to Lewie Pslouse *
In 1833. Richard (born 1785, died 1849) was a type-founder Co., by sale of interest to H. L Hartshorn. Lewie
for nearly fifty ysars. Henry 8„ twin brother of Richard. Pelouse died In 1876, and H L. Hartshorn became sole
was a punch-cutter. The date of his death is unknown, owner. In 1876 William M. Hartshorn became a partner
Edwin, a younger brother, a punch-cutter and inventor In 1878 John K. Tetlow was admitted aa partner. In
of ability, died In 1853. In partnership with his son I860 W. M. Hartshorn retired ; in 1883 J. fcT Tetlow re-
Thomas W. ha carried on the business of type-founding In tired, leaving H. L. Hartshorn sols proprietor. ~~"
Baltlmore and Philadelphia under the name of B. Starr k the years 1865 and 1875 H. L. Hartshorn manag '
Hon. This foundry was afterward sold to Collins k M'Lec- ness of Lewis Pelouse * Co.. at Richmond, 1
star of Philadelphia. is now a braneh of ths American Type Founders vosnpaay.
Andrew Foreman, previously of ths Bruce Foundry The Ksrstone Type Foundry was established at Phlla-
of New York, was sngsged by William Faulkner to es- delphia in 1888 by the Mather Manufacturing Company,
tablish a type-foundry in Han Francisco, which he did In who rontinus as proprietors. Ths manager is Walter J.
1888, building the first machines and easting the first McKee.
types made in California. This foundry, aided by Conner* e The Cleveland Type Foundry was established at CI eve-
Sons of New York, did business under the name of Faulk- land, Ohio, In the year 1879, by the H. H. Thorn Bsas-
nor k Son until 1880, when It was sold to Painter A Co. factoring Company (H. H. Thorp, president ; F. B Berry,
and incorporated with their foundry. Then Foreman es- secretary ; L. 0. Hickman, treasurer ; and P. H. Baltauna.
tahltshed a new foundry, which now does buslnsss under superintendent). It is now a braneh of the Amerlean
the name of Foreman k Son. TrP* Foundsrs Company.
Painter k Son established a type-foundry at Ban Fran- The Union Type Foundry of Chicago waa established in
ciseo in 1838, with machines and moulds from the John- that city In the veer 1872 under ths name of the Mechanics'
son Foundry of Pblladslphla. J. B. Painter died in 1881. Type Foundry, by former employees of Harder, Luse A Co..
The business closed in 18W. the plant going to ths Ameri- and controlled by different managers until 1884, when It
can Type Founders Company. was Incorporated under Its p resen t name. In IH88 It
Hawka k Shattuek began to make type In Han Fran- bought out the Manhattan Type Foundry of New York,
deoo In 1893, undsr ths nams of the Pacific States Type taking ell their material. It Is now ■
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Brilliant) or 4^point 9 leaded 105
«he gsaoral direction of tha Amaricnn Type Fouulm Philip Heinrich. a type-founder of Frankf ort, Oonu;,
Cempaay. euu to this country in 1819. For ton yaws after ha was
The Cincinnati Type Foundry wm established in that in tha employ of type-founders of Haw York and Phila-
aity in tha year 1817 by OUrer Walla. Horaaa Wall* and delphla. In I860 ha began business aa a maator type-
Jofca White. After aararal change* in partnership, in foundar. Ha died in 1883.
WO it waa nude a etoek company. Ita managers ainee In 1872 tha New York Printing Co. waa making text-
1861 hare hacn Charlaa Walla, Henry Berth, and W. typea for ita own use, but thla branah of ita business U not
T Hut. Charlaa Walla died in 1886. It is now a branah done now by ita sueoeosors. George Monro U tha only
of tha American Type Founders Company. printer of New York who ondertekee to make typea for
Juan O. Manual k Co. began a type-founding bnaineaa at hia own needa.
Baltimore in 18B1. John O. Mangel, Jr.. had bean a In 1808 8. R. Walker and H. L. Pelouso of Sew York
partner of John Ryan. John O. Mangel, Br- beeame a added type-founding to their prsrious buaineea of lead-
partner in Fehmary. 1883. ThU foundry ia now a branah eaatlng. In 1806 thay aetebUahed a email type-foundry
of the a morin a n Type Founder. Company. in Richmond. Virginia. In 1800 tha partnership waa
Tha St. Louia Type Foundry waa aatabllahad at St. Louia dissolTsd. Pelouaa taking tha Richmond foundry. After
in 1840 by George Charlaa of tha Johneon Foundry of Walker', death in 1808, the buaineea waa continued by
Philadelphia, In 1844 he eold it to A. P. Ladsw of Albany, hia eon Samuel R. Walker, and R. F Cola. Theodore
». T. In 1847 Ledew sold one-half to T. F. Pureell of TuthiU and P. H. Breanan were subsequent partners.
LeuWrille. In 1836 Pureell eold hia intoraat to Y. J. Peers Sinee 1883 the Ann-name hae been Walker k Breanan.
WBt. Lemla. In MOB Ladsw beeame sols owner, but in 1881 Robert and John Lindsay (brothers to Jemss) began
at told out to the Cincinnati Type Foundry. In 1861 the type-founding in New York in 1802. Another brother,
burinsss waa incorporated aa the St. Louia Type Foundry. Alexander W. became a third partner in 1806. in the
It U new a bennoh of tha Am e ric an Type Founders Com- new arm of B. k J. * A. W. Lindaay. Alexander W.
•any. subsequently established a separate business which was
In 1808 Lawrence Johnson of Philadelphia eetabllehed continued for many yeara. In 1882 he merged it in the
* branch foundry in C incinn a ti , and put it under the man- A m e ri can Type Founders Company. Tha older Lindsay
■gsment «* Robert Allison, an employee, who afterward Type Foundry afterward continued the business under the
totem, its owner. It was then known as the Franklin name of Robert Lindsay k Co.
Type foundry. In 1808 M. Smith became a partner. In In the autumn of 1882 the American Type Founders
MR h waa merged in the American Type Founders Com- Company waa established, with a oapital stock of nine
psay. and is now known aa Branah 10 of that concern. million dollars, which waa afterward reduced.
The Beaton Type Foundry began in 1817. It undertook to The company waa formed to acquire and carry on tha
«■"» types, set types , and make stereotype p l a i ce. Ita first business of ths following firms and corporations :
aps rim sn hook of 1880 a nn o un ces Timothy Bedlington and MacKcllar. Smiths * Jordan Co.. Philadelphia.
Charles Xwar ea proprietors, who offer to sell nonpareil Collins * M Locator. Philadelphia,
at one dollar and forty cento and pearl at one dollar and Pelouss k Co., Philadelphia.
arrenty-sWe cents per pound. Between 1830 and 1838 the James Conner's Sons, New York.
Boston Type Foundry gars much enoouragement to Darid P. H. Heinrich, New York.
Brace, Jr.. who was then experimenting with his type- A. W. Lindaay, New York,
carting marhinc Before it was organlssd as a corporation Charles J. Gary k Co.. Baltimore,
to K40, Jamea Conner had been the manager of the stereo- The John Ryan Co.. Baltimore .
typing and Michael Dalton of ths type-founding depart- J. O. Mangel A- Co.. Baltimore.
■seals. It* first president was C. C. Utile, and ita first Hooper. Wilson k Co.. Baltimore,
agent John Oorham Rogers. Bewail Phelps was then at Boston Type Foundry, Boston.
toe bead of the stereo t ype foundry. James Shuts sue- Phelps, Dalton A Co. Boston,
eaaded J. O. Rogers. About 1849 ths stereotype branch Lyman k Son. Buffalo,
ef the bn al n ans was sold. Soon after the type-foundry Allison k Smith, Cincinnati.
*us sold to John K. Rogers, Darid Watson, and Bdward Cincinnati Type Foundry, Cincinnati.
Mi mi . who did bu sine ss under the name of John K. Clsrsland Type Foundry, Clarsland.
Keen* k Co. After Pslousa retired in 1871 the business Mardsr. Luse k Co., Chicago,
•as f a r iia d cat under the name of the Boston Typs Union Type Foundry, Chicago.
'sundry. Boon after a branch at St. Louia waa eatab- Benton. Waldo k Co., Milwaukee.
baked under the charge of two employees of the house. Central Type Foundry. St. Louis.
Jsass* A. BL John and Carl Sehrauhstedter. John K- St. Louis Type Foundry, St. Louis.
aogers' Interna* waa bought by St. John and Schraub- Kansas City Typs Foundry. Kansas City.
ateetoe-. who of torward sold ths business to the American Pnbner k Bey, Ban Francisco.
Type Found*** Company. In tha prospectus of ths company it was claimed that
Jahn Kimball Rogers, once a prominent member of the the above-named twenty-three eompaniea and firms man- _
fi nnan Type Foundry, waa born at Olouoester, M ass.. on of actors and sell about eighty-fire per oent. of the sn-
tte Set ef January, 182L Hs died at Longwood. Mass., tire output of type In the United States,
ea toe 27th at January. 1888. The principal foundries that declined to be merged in
The type-foundry of C. J. Cary A Co. of Baltimore wea the company were :
hare ootahltohod in 1804 by Robert Sower. Its aubee- Farmer, Little k Co. New York.
feent proprietor* were : R. B. Spaulding, 1818 ; F. Lucas, George Brass's Son k Co, New York.
Jr 1838 : Lmeaa Brothers, 1804 ; Hsnry Lucas, 1800 ; F. Bamhart Bros, k Spindler, Chicago.
8. tome, 1872 : Henry L. Pelouss k Bon, 1878 ; C. J. Ths types most used on daily ncwipapers are now (1BB9)
Cary k Co. 1BB3. made by many of ths offices on ths linotype machine. The
The Waahiagton Type Foundry was established in 188B as diversion of this branch of type-founding to ths new pro-
s bsansh of ths Riahmond Type Foundry, then under the seas has not apparently afleeted the output of the American
management of H. L. Pelouas. It was afterward managed Type Founders Company, who still continue to mahe book
by If mat members of the Pelouss family. It ia now and Job types by the older method for a steadily increasing
■ ii ig. I by J. H. Mills fit Co demand.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
106 Leaded and Solid Matter
In the preceding illustrations, twenty-two dis-
tinct sizes are shown, ranging from the large
Real need s ^ e °* six-line pica, which is nearly one
for many inch in height of body, and the small size
81268 of brilliant, which is about one-twentieth
of an inch in height of body. Between the sizes
of nonpareil and pica, the difference of each body
from its proximate body is about one seventy-
second part of an inch; between all proximate
sizes below nonpareil, about one one-hundred-and-
forty-fourth of an inch. The inexpert may say
that there are too many bodies, but there is need
for all of them. The early printers, who printed
books with half the number, worked to great dis-
advantage. The so-called irregular sizes, which are
almost as common as the regular, enable modern
publishers to make books and newspapers to suit
every taste. A book in small-pica costs less than
one in pica, yet it is equally readable. The adver-
tisements in nonpareil that overcrowd a news-
paper are quite as acceptable when set in agate,
even if they occupy a smaller space.
In the illustrations of sizes shown on pages
76 to 105, the types of the facing pages are pre-
Leaded cisely the same. The difference in their
and solid appearance is produced by leading. The
lines of the even page are " solid," or as
close together as they can be brought ; the lines of
the odd page have been separated by the insertion
of thin pieces of soft type-metal known as leads.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Leads of Different Forms 107
These leads, like the quadrats and spaces which
separate words, are not quite type-high 5 they do
not appear in print, not being touched by the ink-
ing rollers. Leading between lines of composed
matter makes print more readable, by giving more
white space in a place where relief is of advantage.
The selection of the thickness of the lead is usually
a matter of taste, but to some extent it should be
determined by the face of type with which the lead
is used. Large types need thick leads j small types,
thin leads.
Thickness of a three-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a four-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a six-to-pica lead.
Thickness of an eight-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a ten-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a twelve-to-pica lead.
Two forms of leads are made : high leads, about
seven-eighths of an inch high, which reach to the
shoulder of the type, and are employed Lead8made
only in fine stereotype or electrotype of different
work ; low leads, about three-fourths of forms
an inch high, or of the same height as ordinary
quadrats, which are used only in letter-press work.
They are usually cast, in a mould, in strips about
eleven inches long, which are afterward cut to
Digitized by VaOOQlC
108 Book-types not of Uniform Face
prescribed lengths. Some leads are made by roll-
ing machines. In many daily newspaper offices
the strips, which are there subject to harder usage
than in book offices, are made of rolled brass.
These are called brass-leads or brasses ; the latter
is better. The size most used is that known as six-
to-pica, but founders furnish them of any thickness
from three- to f ourteen-to-pica. The thickness of
two-to-pica is known as a nonpareil slug, and all
other thicknesses that correspond with the regular
bodies of type are known by the names of their
bodies, as pica slugs or brevier slugs. Slugs are
often used by book printers as the foot-lines to
pages, and also to separate the columns of pages.
Old-style faces had to be selected as the illus-
trations of sizes, for it was not possible to show
Modem book- a harmonious series of faces in roman
types seldom of modern cut. Many American f oun-
eut in series derg} cftn 8 ^ ow in g t m c, antique, or
other forms of display letter, a harmonious series
from pearl to six-line pica, but they cannot show
this harmony in any complete series of roman
book-letter. The smaller sizes made by the type-
founders are extra wide, or narrow, or bold, or
light, to suit the needs of their largest customers,
the publishers of newspapers. The larger sizes,
above great-primer, are usually made extra bold
and black, to suit the needs of job printers. Sizes
larger than great-primer are so rarely used for
book-work, and yet so largely used for posting-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Book-faces not Regularly Graded 109
bills, that founders are led to make only those
faces that are most serviceable for job printing.
The illustrations of the sizes of type set forth
on pages 76 to 105 are also intended to exhibit
the number of words and the number ProportloI18
of ems that fill the fixed space of one of different
fidl page of this size, or of 15 square 8lzes of type
inches. They show the loss in lines and words
that follows the insertion of leads, and the gain
in words made by the change from a larger to a
smaller type. Yet they show but imperfectly the
relative proportions of type-bodies, and the exact
relations of the bodies to their faces. The sizes
meridian and paragon were omitted, because suit-
able faces of book-types are not made upon these
bodies. The sizes from double small-pica to five-
line pica, inclusive, are from the old foundry of
MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co., and are mainly
true old-styles of Caslon design. The sizes english
to nonpareil, inclusive, are from the old foundry of
George Brace's Son & Co., and are all old-styles
of modern design. The illustrations of Columbian,
agate, diamond, and brilliant, from several foun-
dries, are also of modern design, but are destitute
of all old-style features. Coming from different
foundries, cut by different punch-cutters at widely
distant periods, and cast upon bodies graded by
different systems, these illustrations of sizes do
not show relative proportions with a becoming
precision. The Columbian seems larger than the
Digitized by V3OOQLC
110 Difficult to Identify Bodies by Faces
great-primer; the agate seems to be larger than
the nonpareil ; the bourgeois does not appear, as it
irregular!- should, the true intermediate of brevier
ties in faces and long-primer. These irregularities of
of type f ace gj.g |.j ie resu its of attempts to make
for printers special faces suiting special purposes,
for one size only, and not for a full series of sizes.
Founders have been persuaded to cut mongrels
of new forms : as large a face as can be got upon
the body, or nearly as large as the next larger
size, or but very little larger than the next smaller
size, or faces that are wider or thinner than the
standard forms. Types so made, and there are too
many of them, break the regularity of a graded
series of sizes. The agate with shortened ascend-
ers and descenders is really of a larger face than
the nonpareil, but is called agate because it is on
an agate body. The bourgeois may be nearly as
large as a long-primer, but it is called bourgeois
The body because it is on a bourgeois body. The
determines body determines the name. As the ex-
the name ftcfc gize of ^ bo( jy i s not seen { n t ^e
print, it is often difficult, even for the expert, to
accurately name the body of a type from a hasty
inspection of its face.
The body of the text-type used in any piece of
print that has been " set solid " or without leads,
can be approximately ascertained by measuring it
with a rule. One inch should cover 6 lines of pica,
7 of small-pica, 8 of long-primer, 9 of bourgeois,
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Changes Made by Use of Leads 111
10 of brevier, 11 of minion, 12 of nonpareil, 14 of
agate, 16 of pearl, and 18 of diamond. 1 For longer
measurements than one inch, a type-mea- To flnd
surer should be used. The body of solid the size
type can also be determined by finding a of body
quadrat which will completely span the distance
between the foot of the first line and the foot of
the second one. When the lines of type are leaded,
the identification of an unknown body is more
difficult. The width of the lead and of the space
between lines cannot be measured or safely con-
jectured. The only test is to put an em quadrat
of the supposed body over a full-bodied letter like
Q or j. If this quadrat touches or nearly touches
the letter at its extreme points, it should be, and
probably is, of the same body.
gyp gyp
d 1 b d 1 b
Solid. Leaded.
Types are sometimes leaded with very thin
leads, like twelve- fourteen- or sixteen-to-pica, for
which all these methods of measurement will be
found unsatisfactory. With the ordinary thickness
of six-to-pica, the detection of leading is not so
uncertain. If there is a decided space of white be-
tween the approaching points of ascending and
descending letters, the type is probably leaded. 2
1 These figures can be safely 2 Reservation has to be made
used only in a measurement of for the bastard bodies, to which
one inch. Consult tables in the these observations do not apply;
chapter on the Point System, but bastard bodies are rare.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
112 Relations of Types to Each Other.
The relations which each body of the book-types
shown in the preceding pages bears to other bodies
in solid composition are arithmetically shown by
the figures in the following table :
Sizes of Type
Ems
to the
alpha-
bet^
er 12
Ems
to the
line.
Lines '
in the/
page,'
solid.
Ems
in the
page.
Words
in a
page,
solid.
105
Great-prim
12*
20
250
Columbian
. 13i
14
23
322
122
English ..
. • 12f
16
26
416
170
Pica . . .
. • 12*
18
29
532
209
Small-pica
• 12i
20
32
640
249
Long-prim (
3r 12
22£
36
810
319
Bourgeois
. . 12*
25
40
1000
383
Brevier. .
. . 13
28
46
1288
490
Minion . .
. . 13f
31*
51
1607
588
Nonpareil
. 14
36
57
2052
734
Agate . .
. 16
40
65
2400
852
Pearl. . .
. 15J
45
72
3240
1015
Diamond.
. 13f
50
81
4050
1391
Brilliant .
. 15
56
92
5152
1763
1 The figures in this column em-quadrats of its own body
show the relative fatness or that equal the length of the
leanness of each face of type twenty- six lower-case letters of
by specifying the number of the alphabet. See page 115.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Measurement of Composition 113
An em of any type is the square body of that
type. As it is impracticable to count all the bits of
metal in a page, the em is made a unit The em quad .
of superficial measure. The space that rat is the unit
can be covered by one thousand em- ofmeasure
quadrats is reckoned as one thousand ems. This
method of measuring is never changed for open
or leaded composition. One thousand ems may
contain three thousand bits of metal if the matter
be solid, or only one thousand bits if the matter
be leaded and full of quadrats 5 but in either case
the composition is computed as one thousand ems.
In the measurement of the width of a line of
composition no account is taken of any smaller
fraction than the en quadrat. If the Rule8agto
width of the line exceeds even ems by fractions of
one third of an em, this excess of one an em
third is not counted j if it is an en, or but little
less, it is counted as an en ; if it exceeds an en,
the excess is counted as a full em.
The em quadrat is also made the unit for mea-
suring the fatness or leanness of any face of type,
which fatness or leanness is determined by the
number of ems that equal in length the alphabet
of twenty-six lower-case letters.
The widths of different faces are defined by the
number of ems to the lower-case alphabets and by
the words standard, lean, condensed, and extra
condensed, to specify their progressive decrease
in width ; rfbd by the words fat, broad-faced, ex-
15
Digitized by V3OOQLC
114 The Measurements of Faces
panded, and extended, to specify their progressive
increase in width.
The standard of width is variable. The Inter-
national Typographical Union has determined the
proper width or standard of pica, small-pica, long-
primer, and bourgeois at 13 ems ; of brevier and
minion at 14 ems; nonpareil 15 ems; agate 16
ems ; pearl 17 ems ; diamond 18 ems. Faces that
fall below these standards are unfairly measured
by the em quadrat of the next smaller body.
M M M I
Standard. Lean. Condensed. Extra condensed.
M M M M
Standard. Fat. Broad-faced. Expanded.
A lean letter has an alphabet of lower-case let-
ters that is below the standards here given. The
bourgeois of 13 ems is up to the standard; the
brevier of 13 ems is below the standard.
Condensed letters are now rarely used for the
text-types of books or newspapers. There is no
rule that limits the use of the word condensed to
any specified width; but it may be fairly applied
to any face of which the lower-case alphabet
measures 10 or 11 ems of its body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Illustrations of the Widths of Faces 115
. Ems.
Nonpareil . |abcdefghyidmnopqr8tuvwxyd 16|
jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzj 14
Lean . . Lbcdefghijklmnopqrttuvwxyzj 13|
Fat . . . bbcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyd .... 19 J
Expanded, pbodefgl^jklriiiiopQrstruvwxysd . 23£
Minion . . Lbcdef ghijklmnopqr atuv wx yz 14$
kbcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl 13J
Brevier . . JabcdefgMjklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 14|
Jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzj 13
Lean . . Jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyd 11J
Condensed ktocdefjjhgklmnopqrstuvwxyzl 11
Ex. cond. labcdefghijklmDopqr8tarwxyz| 8$
Bourgeois. |abcdefghijklmiiopqrstuvwxyz| .... 13$
|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzj 12£
Long-prim. |abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| . I3i
Jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzj .... 12
condensed jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 10£
smaii-pica |abcdefghijklmiiopqrstuvwxyz| i3j
|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| . . i2£
wca . . . jabcdefgMjklniiiopqrstuvwxyzj i3i
|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| . 12^
Digitized by V3OOQLC
116 The Standards of Measurement
An extra condensed letter has an alphabet less
than 10 ems in width.
A fat letter has an alphabet but a trifle wider
than that of its standard. 1
Abroad-faced letter has an x alphabet fifteen or
twenty per cent, wider than that of its standard.
An expanded letter has an alphabet thirty or
forty per cent, wider than that of its standard.
An extended letter has an alphabet fifty per
cent, (or more) wider than that of its standard.
i The standard of width is of
recent introduction. The'* Lon-
don Scale of Prices " of 1810 and
the " New York Scale of Prices"
of 1833 gave no roles as to a
standard, even when lean types
were in frequent use. The first
American rule (probably 1851)
makes the standard 12 ems for
all bodies. About 1864 higher
standards were determined on
for the smaller bodies. In 1886
the standards of all bodies were
again increased.
The Oaslon old-style faces,
marked lean in the previous il-
lustration, fairly represent the
average width of the lower-case
letters of the last century. The
rounder and wider faces that
were subsequently introduced
by Thome, Jackson, Bodoni, and
Didot did not prove a permanent
fashion. They were supplanted
by the Scotch-face, and other
cuts of letter decidedly below
the present standards, and these
leaner faces were preferred for
newspapers as well as for books.
The modern broad-faces now
made for newspapers were spar-
ingly made and little used before
1860. They seem to have been ac-
cepted by newspaper publishers
because they were a mechanical
necessity, for it had been found
that stereotyping by the papier-
mache* process and presswork
on rotary machines could not
be done well from the lean types
then in use, for they moulded
badly, wore out quickly, and
made printing muddy and indis-
tinct. To prevent these faults
it was necessary to make use of
wider types, with broader stems
and deeper counters ; but these
broader faces were accepted re-
luctantly, for they wasted space.
Publishers of books favor the
broad-faces for juvenile school-
books only ; for all standard
books in large type they prefer
the lean faces. In England and
France the faces most used are
thinner than the American.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Irregularities of Measurement 117
In a comparison of composition done with two
distinct faces of type, one of which is 12 and the
other 15 ems in width, there will be a no allowance
corresponding difference in the num- for fat types
ber of words making one thousand ems ; but this
difference in the count does not modify the rule.
Irregularities in the thickness of types should be
allowed for in all computations of space or pro-
portion. In every exact calculation as to the space
that will be occupied by a proposed type, its num-
ber of ems to the alphabet should be ascertained.
The unfairness of measuring composition by
the em quadrat is shown by the illustration on
the next leaf. The four faces there shown are
on long-primer body, and the measure of each
is twenty ems of long-primer. The composition
in each face is now measured as one hundred ems,
but the number of words set are respectively 44,
42, 38, 25. The compositor of the thin type has
then to do much more labor to have his com-
position counted as one hundred ems.
The progressive widening of letters for small
bodies was not a whim of the punch-cutter: it was
really obligatory. In cutting a series 8malltype8
of uniform faces the type-founder has nave to be of
to widen each smaller alphabet, to make br <> aderface
it seem uniform with the larger size, and to main-
tain a proper degree of clearness and durability.
A small type cut to the same geometrical pro-
portion as a large type would seem condensed and
Digitized by VaOOQlC
118 Unfairness of the Standards
not of the same style. The legibility of a small
text-type depends more upon the width of its let-
ters than upon their height. A wide or broad-faced
letter is always more readable than a condensed
letter, because it seems of a larger body. The
increased width now given to the small sizes
may have been thought sufficient justification for
the new standards, but they have destroyed the
value of the em as a unit of measure. The term
one thousand ems, as now used, does not fairly
describe the amount of a compositor's labor, or
even approximately the number of words in his
composition. Under present standards the com-
positor of books has to set from one fifth to one
half more matter than the news compositor to
have it rated as one thousand ems. At the same
rate and on the same copy a slow compositor can
earn more on agate than a quick compositor can
on long-primer. The standard of 13 ems for book-
types practically puts a penalty on the use of the
Caslon-face, the French-face, the Scotch-face, and
nearly every popular face made before 1860, to the
great damage of the type-founders and printers
who have these styles. No doubt the new stan-
dards were made in the belief that the broad faces
of the newspapers would be accepted by publish-
ers of books, but the opposition of publishers is
as strong now as it was thirty years ago.
A new method of measuring composition has
recently been offered.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Illustrations of Irregularities 119
1 1 % em auadrats to the lower-case alphabet.
26^ lower-case ems to the measure.
Open your watch and look at: the little wheels,
springs and screws, each an indispensable part of
the wonderful machine. Notice the busy little
balance-wheel as it flies to and fro, day and night,
year in and year out. This wonderful machine is
12^ em quadrats to the lower-case alphabet.
25X lower-case ems to the measure.
Open your watch and look at the little wheels,
springs and screws, each an indispensable part
of the wonderful machine. Notice the busy lit-
tle balance-wheel as it flies to and fro, day and
night, year in and year out. This wonderful
13^6 em auadrats to the lower-case alphabet.
2 3/4 lower-case ems to the measure.
Open your watch and look at the little
wheels, springs and screws, each an indis-
pensable part of the wonderful machine.
Notice the busy little balance-wheel as it
flies to and fro, day and night, year in and
i8j/£ em quadrats to the lower-case alphabet.
i6#j lower-case ems to the measure.
Open your watch, and look at
the little wheels, springs and
screws, each an indispensable
Sart of the wonderful machine,
"otice the husy little halance-
Irregularities of measurement in four faces of long-primer.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
120 Spencer Method French Method
Alexander Spencer proposes that the ten lower-
case letters most nsed should be selected as the
basis for a system of measuring composition by
letters. These ten letters, e, t, a, i, s, o, n, h, r, d, 1
are to be set up repeatedly in the line to be mea-
sured until the line is full. The number of letters
that can be put in the stick, including the final
justifying space if any, is to be accepted as the
proper number of letters of count for width.
The letters selected are thin, but the gain there-
from is not so great as might be expected. It will
vary with the width of the measure, making from
five to eight per cent, more than would be had
from the older method of measuring with all the
letters. The merit of this system is in its removal
of restrictions on type-founders, but the selection
of the ten most used letters and a possible added
space is a factitious basis for a system of measure-
ment that is intended to be equitable.
In the French method the space taken by the
twenty-four letters of their alphabet is computed
as twenty-four letters. The number of letters is
determined by filling the line to be measured with
repetitions of the alphabet, and counting the let-
ters that can be put in the stick. The number of
i Mr. Spencer selects his ten
letters from a table in Brewer's
"Dictionary of Phrase and Fa-
ble" (p. 507), which gives the
following figures as the propor-
tionate use of lower-case letters r
e
1000
h .
.640
f .
.236
V 120
t
..770
r .
.628
W.
.190
k..88
a
..728
d
.892
y •
.184
j ..M
i
..704
1 .
.860
p •
.168
q .60
s
..680
u .
.296
K •
.168
X..46
o
n
..672
..670
c .
m.
.280
.272
b .
.168
z .22
Digitized by LjOOQLC
English Method Union Method 121
letters so ascertained in one line is multiplied by
the number of solid lines in the length of the mat-
ter composed. This method is as elastic The French
as it is correct. The compositor gains m ® tbod
nothing by thick and loses nothing by thin letters.
As the entire lower-case alphabet is made the basis
of count, no unfairness can be practised with any
unduly thickened letter.
The English unit for measuring composed mat-
ter is the en quadrat. The number of ens in the
line to be measured is multiplied by The English
the number of solid lines. The unit is m et hod
different, but the method of measurement is the
same as that of the United States. One thousand
ens English equal five hundred ems American.
The International Typographical Union of North
America recently formulated a n^w method for
determining the correlative widths of New rules
lower-case types, and as a proper basis for wldth
for the measurement of composition. The lower-
case alphabet must be divided in two equal parts,
with thirteen letters in each part. The part that
contains the letters c, d, e, i, s, m, n, h, o, u, a, t, z,
must be of the same length as the part containing
the other thirteen letters. This new regulation,
which seems to have been made as a safeguard to
prevent the capricious thickening of the width of
any one type to the disadvantage of the piece com-
positor, is of doubtful general utility. Since the
introduction in composing-rooms of the Linotype
Digitized by V3OOQLC
122 The Set of Type-founders
and Lanston, and of other type-casting machines,
there has been a marked decline in the practice of
piece composition. All the new type-making and
type-setting machines are constructed to favor the
production of types on a wider set. The nominal
or measurable production of these machines is
largely increased by greater fatness in the types,
which are rarely less than ten per dent, (and are
sometimes twenty per cent.) fatter than types made
after the old standards of good form.
Set is the word used by type-founders to define
the set or adjustment of the mould, which deter-
mines the width of each type. An en quadrat is on
the en set ; a three-to-em space is on the three-to-em
set ; the period is usually on the five-to-em set.
When a printer wishes a character cast to a pre-
scribed width, he should define its proposed width
by the word set.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Ill
The Point System
SjNE of the defects of the old system
of. naming types was this — the old
>mes did not define the old name8
dies. Small-pica was in- did not de-
tended for a body half-way toebodto «
between pica and long-primer, but in one foundry
it might be of nearer approach to long-primer, and
in another but little smaller than pica. There
was no agreement among founders as to the exact
dimensions of small-pica, long-primer, or any other
body. Hansard says: "In one office I knew of
eight fonts of pica which bore the following pro-
portions to a foot measure : 71J, 71 J, 70$, 71 £, 71,
71i,71*,71i"i
To the novice these irregularities seem trifling.
The variation between a pica 71 lines to the foot
l "Typographic" p. 385.
123
Digitized by VaOOQlC
124 The Irregularities of Bodies
and another pica 71J lines to the foot is not a
three-hundredth part of an inch — a variation that
m^eguiarity cannot be seen and that can scarcely
of bodies is a be felt. If two bodies like these could
serious fault jj wa y S \y e kept apart, each body being
used in detached lines or in distinct work, this
variation might be trifling. But an entire sepa-
ration of the different bodies in the same office is
practically impossible. Types of different bodies
sometimes have to be used in the same work — to
be made up, side by side, in pages of fifty lines or
in columns of two hundred lines. They often have
to be used together in the same line. If the type-
body of one page of fifty lines is one three-hun-
dredth part of an inch shorter than that of another
page, then the first page will be one-sixth of an
inch shorter than its mate. In a column of two
hundred lines, the difference will be two-thirds of
an inch. If the two discrepant bodies be put in
the same line, as they have to be in the displayed
words of a catalogue or a dictionary, the differ-
ence in bodies which is unnoticed in the first line
makes a serious crookedness in the tenth line, and
this crookedness will keep increasing with every
succeeding line.
In all offices the rule prevails that there must
be no mixing of types from different foundries,
even if they are apparently of the same face and
body. To disobey this rule is to create disorder;
to mix the types of two fonts spoils both fonts.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Accuracy Maintained with Difficulty 125
The contrasting, side by side, of a composition of
twenty or more lines of two fonts that seem alike
will prove that they are seriously unlike. This
dissimilarity may be noticeable not only in the
bodies of different founders, but even in bodies
that have been made by the same founder at dif-
ferent times.
It is of the first importance that types should
be accurate, yet it is difficult to make them of un-
varying accuracy. The mould of steel D ifflcultto
will swell and wear; the matrix of cop- make type
per is extremely liable to imperceptible accurate
displacements. Changes in the composition of the
metal, and in the degrees of heat, produce corre-
sponding changes in the dimensions of founded
types. A little more or a little less pressure in
rubbing the type will make corresponding differ-
ences in the size of the body. In all reputable type-
foundries these tendencies to irregularity are kept
under control, and seldom lead to faults serious
enough to justify complaint. A printer can order
sorts to-day to supplement a font cast twenty-five
years ago, with confidence that the new and the
old can be safely used together. But this rigid
accuracy is maintained only by testing the types
as they are cast with instruments of precision that
were not used by type-founders a hundred years
ago. The accuracy of the exactest founder who
cast type under old systems was only of partial
benefit to the printing trade. As a rule, his sizes
Digitized by VaOOQlC
126 Irregularities an Inherited Evil
differed, and in some instances purposely differed,
from those of other founders. The printer who
had to buy from all foundries could not use the
types of two or more founders in the same line or
even on facing pages ; he could not safely mix the
spaces and quadrats of different fonts; he could
not even determine an exact measurement by the
count of ems. There was no standard.
These irregularities are the inherited misfor-
tunes of printing. They can be seen in the types
Beginning of °^ *^ e n ^ rs * printers, who were their
irregularity own founders, who cast their types in
in bodies ft rn ^ e adjustable mould (now entirely
out of use), which could be made larger or smaller
so as to cast two or more bodies. For the sake
of its cheapness the early printer preferred the
mould which made many bodies to that which
made one body only. In the continued readjust-
ments of this mould for different castings, the
inexpert founder made unintended deviations and
irregularities of body which he and his successors
were obliged to perpetuate.
Moxon, 1 writing in 1683, named ten bodies as
those most used in England. He admits that the
standards Dutch had several other bodies, but he
of Moxon aid no t think them worth naming, as
they differed but little from the English bodies.
" Yet we have one Body more which is sometimes
used in England: that is the Small-Pica, but I
1 "Mechanick Exercises," pp. 13, 14
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Early English Standards
127
ant it no discretion in a Master Printer to use
fcause it differs so little from the Pica." He
i us this table, " wherein is set down the num-
>f each Body that is contained in one Foot."
earl 184
omparel 150
revier 112
ong-Primmer 92
ica 75
English 66
Great-Primmer 50
Double-Pica 38
Two-Lin'd English. . . 33
Great-Cannon 17^
ickombe, 1 writing in 1770, gives another table
e proper dimensions of bodies (probably those
iQ first Caslon), which shows that the bodies
made deviated largely from the standards
had been laid down by Moxon:
rench Canon 18 and a Great Primer
wo Lines Double Pica 20 and \
wo Lines Great Primer. . . 25 and an n
wo Lines English 32
wo Lines Pica 35 and %
ouble Pica 41 and an n
aragon 44 and an n
reat Primer 51 and an r
Qglish 64
ica 71 and an n
mall Pica 83
ong Primer 89
nrjois 102 and a space
revier 112 and an n
inion 128
onpareil 143
Barl 178
1 " History of Printing, " p. 222.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
128
Later English Standards
From this it appears that six new sizes had been
introduced which Luckombe declared were not
really needed. He says: "How much less value,
therefore, would Mr. Moxon have set upon Minion,
Burjois, and Paragon had he ever seen them." 1
The old Caslon foundry, from which Luckombe
probably obtained his measurements, was justly
standards considered the first in England, but its
of casion inability to be true to its own standards
and others ig gj l0wn \>y Hansard's 2 comparison of
the Caslon bodies of 1770 with those made in 1824.
In 1825 he published in his "Typographia" a care-
fully engraved diagram of the sizes most used,
printed on dry paper to prevent shrinkage ; this
showed decided variations from the standards of
1770. In 1842 Savage, for his "Dictionary of
Printing," procured from the same foundry the
one set, pica and english from
another, and great-primer and
double pica from the third set.
" History of Printing," p. 225.
2 Hansard, while admitting
that the irregularities of type
originated in the want of some
generally understood standard,
puts the greater blame on those
printers, who "from a love of
singularity and a desire to avoid
the inconvenience of lending
sorts . . . still order their fonts
to be cast on an irregular body."
"Typographia," p. 384. This
lending was also avoided in an-
other way by printers who had
their types made low to paper.
1 Luckombe intimates that all
the so-called irregular bodies are
but accidents ; that when a new
face had been cut too large for
the body for which it was in-
tended, and too small for an-
other, this new face was put on
an intermediate body. It is evi-
dent that the early founders
made types to suit themselves,
with no regard for the needs of
printers. Luckombe describes
the "saving way " of a " Mr. Jal-
leson, who was a letter-founder
from Germany, and lived here in
the Old Bailey," who with three
sets of punches offered to make
brevier and long-primer from
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Savage's Comparison of Standards 129
surements of the bodies as then made, which
not exactly agree with those that had been
m by Hansard in 1825. Savage also gave the
>wing table of the measurements of the bodies
e by the leading founders of Great Britain.
Lines of Different Sized Type in One Foot 1
Bodies.
Moxon,
Caslon,
1841.
V. &J.
Figgins,
1841.
Thorow
good &
Besley,
1841.
Alex.
Wilson
& Sons,
1841.
amond
>arl
iby
mpareil
aerald . .
inion . . .
►urgeois . . .
>ng Primer,
aall Pica. . .
iglish
eat Primer . . .
.ragon
>uble Pica
ro-line Pica. . .
ro-line English
ro-line Gt.Primer
ro-line Dbl. Pica
af algar
aon
184
150
112
92
75
66
50
38
33
17*6
204
178
166
144
122
111
102
89
83
72
64
51
44*6
41*6
36
32
25*6
20%
20
18
205
180
165
144
128
122
107
101*6
90
82
72*6
64
51
44*6
41*6
36
32
25*6
20%
20
18
210
184
163
144
122
112
103
92
82
72
64*6
52
41
36
32*4
26
20*6
18
204
178
166
144
128
122
111
102
89
83
72
64
51
44*6
41*6
36
32
25*6
20%
20
18
17
l Savage's " Dictionary of Printing," p. 802.
Digitized by V3OOQIC
130
Becent American Standards
The deviations of leading type-founders in the
United States in the year 1856 were as serious, as
will be seen in the following table. Prom these fig-
ures it does not appear that any American founder
had copied the standards of any British founder.
Comparative Scale of Urns in the Linear Foot 1
Bodies.
A
London
foundry.
Brace's
NewYork
foundry.
A
Phila.
foundry.
A
NewYork
foundry.
A
Boston
foundry.
Diamond
205
Pearl
178
Agate
Nonpareil
143
Minion
122
Brevier
112.50
Bourgeois
102.50
Long Primer
89
Small Pica
83
Pica
71.50
English
64
Columbian
56.25
Great Primer
51.25
Paragon
44.50
Dbl. Small Pica..
41.50
Dbl. Pica
35.75
Dbl. English
32
Dbl. Columbian . .
Dbl.Gt. Primer..
25.62
Dbl. Paragon
Meridian
20.75
Canon
18.33
201.
179,
160
142.
126.
113.
100.
89.
80
71.
63.
56.
50.
44.
40
35.
31.
28.
25,
22.
20
17.
204.50
179
165
145
119
109
103.25
90
83
73
128
112
102.50
90.50
86.25
72
124.50
115.66
104.50
90
84.50
72
l "Printer's Miscellany," New York, July, 1857.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Variations in Height 131
r ariations in the height of types have not been
marked as variations in body. English and
erican founders came to a practical variations
eement at the beginning of this cen- to ^eigiit
j that the standard of height should be eleven-
Ifths of an English inch. George Bruce of New
k made the only exception 5 his standard was
;tle higher. In Prance the height of type had
1 fixed by law at ten and a half geometric
s, a fraction less than eighty-eight one-hun-
Iths of the old French inch. Modern French
3s are higher than American types ; the two
;hts cannot be used together. German types
e still higher, but are now made to the French
tdard. 1 The types of Russia and Poland, once
e than one inch in height, are now made to
:orm to the Berthold system,
ttempts have been made to reduce the height,
a mass of types much shorter than those now
se could not be made secure in a chase,
^ile it does not appear that any founder's sizes
ypes were based upon a generally recognized
sure, there was some understanding that the
les from nonpareil to small-pica, inclusive,
dd be limited to six. It was found that these
todies were enough to make all the gradations
his reform was made by vatory. He modelled and had
rich Berthold, a prominent constructed several standards
founder of Berlin, under of steel and sent one gratui-
fuidance of professors of tously to every German type-
Berlin Astronomical Obser- founder.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
132 Plan Proposed by Fergusson
in size demanded by printer, publisher, or reader.
There also seems to have been an understanding
six bodies th at ^ l^g 61 * and smaller bodies should
serve for be made by halving or doubling the six
standards stan( iard sizes. Pica was the double of
nonpareil, and english the double of minion. Pearl
was the half of long-primer, and diamond the half
of bourgeois. The English names of double pica,
double english, and double great-primer show that
these dimensions were or should have been deter-
mined by the three smaller bodies. But these three
small bodies were often inexact, or out of pro-
portion with each other, and the doubling and
redoubling of their bodies exaggerated the fault
If the small-pica had been made but little larger
than long-primer, then the double small-pica would
be but little larger than paragon. There would be
a wide gap between the double small-pica and the
•double pica, and this gap would be still more con-
spicuous in the redoubled size of meridian when
contrasted with canon.
A simple plan for securing uniformity in bodies
was proposed in 1824 by James Fergusson of Scot-
land, in the following words:
Plain and Accurate Rules for obtaining Permanent Uni-
formity in the Sizes of the Bodies of Types, and in their
Height to Paper.
1. Let the fount called Nonpareil be made the fun-
damental standard, and make 12 lines of Nonpareil
measure exactly one inch.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Fournier's System of Points 133
Let 14 lines of Nonpareil be the common measure
Jl other founts ; this measure to take in 5 lines of
A Primer, 6 of English, 7 of Pica, 8 of Small Pica,
Long Primer, 10 of Bourgeois, 11 of Brevier, and
: Minion.
Let 11 lines of Nonpareil be the standard of height
tper.
conformity with these rules would evidently prove
eat benefit to Printers and might ultimately not be
so to Letter-founders. If adopted, the bodies of
ish, Pica and Small Pica will be a little enlarged ;
* Primer and Brevier a little diminished. 1
jrgusson's plan was never adopted. In 1841
er, a type-founder of Sheffield, proposed the
:>lishment of a graduated scale of sizes based
l pica as the common standard, but his pro-
1 was never accepted by the trade,
te first practical attempt at uniformity was
b in Prance by the type-founder Pierre Simon
*nier, about the year 1737. In his " Manuel
>graphique " of 1764 he gives this explanation
s system of Typographic Points : 2
is subject needs special explanation because it is
md unknown. I place it here to show the new pro-
ons which I have given to the bodies of type by
ls of the fixed measures that I call Typographic
bs.
e last regulation of the Library, made in 1723,
the height-to-paper at ten and a half geometrical
This rule is as easy to give as to practise ; but it
Hansard, " Typographic" p. 389. « Vol. i, p. 125.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
134 Foumier's System of Points
was quite another matter when this regulation under-
took to establish laws that should govern the dimensions
of the bodies. When this regulation was made, no one,
apparently, had been found who was competent to give
correct information concerning this matter. A proper
person was much needed, for he could have corrected
abuses, and could have created order and precision
where there never had been any. In the absence of
better knowledge on this subject, a master printer gave
for a standard, with all their imperfections, such types
as he found in his own printing office. The regulation
based on this standard, not being founded on any proper
basis, has not been complied with. This is the reason
why the bodies of types have never had fixed and ac-
curate dimensions, and why the irregularity is just as
great now as it was before the regulation.
In article ux of this regulation, it is stated that,
to be of proper dimensions, Petit-canon [about double
english] should be equal to two bodies of Saint-augustin
[english]$ thatGros-parangon [double small-pica] should
be equal to one Cicero [pica] and one Petit-romain
[long-primer] , etc. ; but the dimensions which the Saint-
augustin, the Cicero, and the Petit-romain should have,
in order to make, by combination, the Petit-canon or the
Gros-parangon, are not given. Consequently, any one
has opportunity to evade the regulation, and it is done
at pleasure, without liability to penalty. One may make
a Saint-augustin body smaller than another, and may
contract the Petit-canon to double this thickness, but
he will comply with the regulation. Another may make
this Saint-augustin body more or less too large, and
from two of these bodies he may make his Petit-canon ;
but in this case also the letter of the regulation will
be complied with, although it is a clear violation of
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Foumier's System of Points 135
intention. In this way confusion is perpetuated
uch an extent that it is sometimes difficult to per-
e the distinction between two bodies of type of
sh the larger size is below the standard, and the
Uer size is above it. Then, again, it sometimes
pens that in two fonts of the same name the bodies
r more or less, and when they are found in the same
ting house, the workmen mix together the quadrats
spaces to the ruin of both fonts,
may be said that the regulation has provided for
fault, by the rule which obliges founders to receive
rtain number of types of each body, to the dimen-
s of which they are required to conform, under
ilty. But these model types, which were only pro-
Mi in theory, and which have never been given,
Id uot have remedied the evil that should have
1 avoided ; for bodies so given would have been of
Btermined dimensions, without correct proportion,
Lout exact relation, and, in fine, without scientific
s. These pretentious regulations, instead of pro-
ng accuracy and order, on the contrary have in-
sed the confusion by multiplying types for which
e was no need. Thus we have, according to the reg-
ion, bodies like Petit-canon, Gros-parangon, Gros-
Edn, Cicero, Philosophic, Gaillarde, and Mignone,
tout double bodies for the two-line letters, all of
jh are virtually unauthorized. Here there are seven
Lght bodies [of two-line letters only] without names,
ess for every other purpose, and a needless expense
le printing office. Moreover, these combinations of
es — of a Cicero and a Petit-romain to make a Gros-
ingon; of a Petit-romain and a Petit- texte to make
-os-romain; of a Petit-texte and a Nompareille to
;e a Saint-augustin — indicate but slender experience
Digitized by LjOOQIC
136 Foumier's System of Points
and capacity in those who proposed them. Why divide
these bodies in unequal parts, which lead to nothing,
and for which there can be no explanation ¥ This part
of the regulation has never been executed.
The defects of existing usages have been perceived,
but no one has tried to find the remedy. The printers,
who are the only parties who have been consulted on
this subject, have not been sufficiently educated as
typographers to discuss the question critically, or to
make rules for a branch of the art which they do not
practise, and of which they often know but little more
than the name.
To clear this chaos, and to give this branch of typog-
raphy an order which never before reigned there, is the
subject that has engaged my attention. By the inven-
tion of the Typographic Points, I think that I have had
the pleasure to be successful, with an accuracy and pre-
cision that leave nothing to be desired. This invention
is nothing more than the separation of the bodies of
types by equal and determinate degrees, which I call
Points. By this method, the degrees of separation and
the degrees of proximity in the bodies of types may be
comprehended with exactness. Types may be combined
like arithmetical figures, as, for example, two and two
make four ; add two, and there will be six ; double this,
and there will be twelve, etc. In like manner, a Nom-
pareille, which has six points, when added to another
Nompareille will make a Cicero, which has a dozen
points ; to this add another Nompareille, and there will
be eighteen points, or a Gros-romain ; double all this,
which will make thirty-six points, and there will be a
Trism6giste, which has this number. Similar results may
be had from all the other bodies, as may be seen in the
table of proportions annexed.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Fournier's System of Points 137
To combine the bodies, it is enough to- know only the
imber of typographic points of which they are com-
sed. For this purpose it is of the first importance
at these points, or given units, should be invariable,
that they may serve as rules or measures in the
inting office, just as the foot [pied-du-roi], the inch,
d the line serve in geometry. With this object in
sw, I have fixed these points of the exact sizes they
»uld have, in the scale which is at the head of the
)le of proportions; and to make unvaryingly exact
3 casting of the types, I have devised an instrument
lich I call a prototype, of which an illustration and
scription will be given on another page,
it the head of this table is a fixed and standard scale,
lave divided it in 2 inches; the inch in 12 lines,
d the line in 6 of these typographic points ; making
ogether 144 points. The first minute divisions are
two points, which is the distance between the body
a Petit-texte and of a Petit-romain, or from this
ter size to the body of a Cicero. The number of
ints which I allot to each of the bodies should be
ten by measure on this scale. If the measures are
surately and specially taken for each body, and are
rifled upon the prototype, they will establish a sys-
oatic gradation of sizes for all bodies of types, as
11 be demonstrated by the following combinations.
rhe invention of these points in 1737 is the first ser-
te that I rendered to typography. Compelled then
begin a tedious, painful, and laborious task, in the
graving of all the punches needed for the estab-
unent of my foundry, I found no standard rule that
lid guide me in determining the bodies of the types
lad to make. I was thus obliged to make a system
18
Digitized
byGOQgfe
138 The Defect of Fournier's System
for my own use. That I have done this will be apparent
by the following table.
This scale contains in its entirety twelve bodies of
Cicero. After printing and publishing this table in
1737, 1 noticed that the paper in drying had shrunk a
little below the proper dimensions of the scale. In this
print I have prevented this error, by making a proper
provision for the shrinkage of the paper.
The table appended to Fournier's diagram shows
his allotment of typographic points to the bodies
then in greatest use. In similar manner the table
proceeds through all sizes to eight-line, or Gros-
nompareille of 96 points. Each of the larger sizes
is not only an exact double of a smaller size, but
is the sum of two or more smaller sizes. Every
body is an exact multiple of the point ; all bodies
can consequently be combined with facility and
without justification.
After this statement of the evils of irregularity,
and of the need of precise standards, the reader
The point was properly expects to see a careful print
not based on from a copperplate of this standard
legal measure gcale of 144 pointg? ftnd ft gtatement
that the two inches of this scale are inches of a
legal standard French measure. Instead of this
he is referred to a roughly constructed diagram,
undeniably made of bits of rule, badly jointed,
and put together so clumsily as to provoke a
suspicion of its accuracy. This suspicion is not
allayed by the statement of Pournier that he had
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Fixed Scale o/Fournier 139
TABLE G£N£RALE
de la Proportion
des diffcrcns Corps de Cara3hres.
SCHELLE FIXE
it 144 points Typographiques.
..I i.t i ii » 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Parisienne • • • .
NoMPARElLLE %
MlGNONE. • • • « •
Petit -texte
Gaillarde*
Petit-romain. — % Parifiennes,.
Philosophie. = i Pant i Norn-
pareille.
Cicero* - i Nomp< s: i Pari-
Cenne , t Mignone.
Saiwt-Avgustin. - iMigaones.
=: x Nompareille, i Petit-texte,
14
" Manuel Typographique," facsimile of p. 125, vol. i.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
140
The Prototype ofFournier
"made provision " (by conjecture?) for a possible
alteration in the scale from the shrinkage of wet
paper. It is still more astonishing to learn that
this rude scale and the prototype (a larger mea-
sure of 240 points) are the only standards offered
The height-gauge and its type-support.
I i
The measuring rod of 240 points.
The prototype of 240 points, in reduced facsimile.
for the determination of the bodies. In another
part 1 of his book Pournier illustrates his proto-
type and its measuring rod, his height-gauge and
its type-support. He does not minutely describe
the use of these tools. We have to infer that
accuracy was proved, or inaccuracy detected, by
l "Manuel Typographique," vol. i, p. 303 ; vol. ii, plate vni.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Advantages of the Points 141
Peeling with the fingers the types in the prototype,
or the height-gauge. In no part of his book does
he allude to a micrometer, or to any similar in-
strument of precision. It is certain that these 240
points were not an even fraction of the standard
French foot. They approach more nearly to Eng-
lish measures, but Fournier does not refer to any
standard measure for the verification of the accu-
racy of his scale or prototype. The only standard
:>f appeal is a diagram printed from brass rules,
purposely made over large to compensate for the
shrinkage of wet paper. 1
Imperfect as it was, Founder's system promised
advantages of real value to printers and founders,
[•he subdivisions made by him permit- T^po^t*
ed the readjustment of the sizes then promised
n use without any serious departure a^* 111 *^
rom established bodies. It required but little
loiitraction or expansion of any body to bring it
vithin the bounds of his typographic points. So
;he system of points was welcomed by printers
ts a valuable improvement in typography; and
n due time it was adopted by all the French
ype-founders.
Fournier states that his object was to separate
;he bodies of types at equal and fixed distances,
1 It is probable that Fournier so that it would not seriously
ound some insuperable obstacle alter the dimensions of existing
n trying to make his point a sizes, hoping that for this reason
egular fraction of the French it would be accepted by printers
dot ; and that he fixed the point and founders.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
142 DidoPs System of Points
but it should be noticed that the types themselves,
although at equal degrees of distance, are in un-
equal degrees of proportion as to body. Body 5 is
one-fourth larger than body 4 ; body 6 is one-fifth
larger than body 5 ; and this decrease continues
with advancing sizes: body 11 is but one-tenth
larger than body 10.
Not long after the death of Fournier, Fran<jois-
Ambroise Didot, the celebrated type-founder of
The potot P*" 8 ? undertook to improve the system
system of of typographic points. His first step to
F.A.Didot fl^g en( j wag ^ | [)age ^ p i n ts upon an
authorized lineal measure. For this purpose he
selected the royal foot of France (pied-du-roi),
which is equal to 12.7892 American inches. He
preserved intact the subdivisions used by Four-
nier: the foot contained 12 inches; the inch, 12
lines ; the line, 6 typographic points ; making, as
before, 72 points to the inch.
In the readjustment of bodies made necessary by
this alteration the smaller faces of type presented
compelled but **ttle difficulty. The parisienne and
important nompareille of Fournier could be respec-
ohanges tively adjusted on bodies of five and six
points of slightly increased dimensions without
impropriety. As to the middle sizes, like gaUlarde,
petit-texte, and mignone, the expansion of the new
points was too much. The faces previously made
for these sizes were found too large for one body
and too small for another. In some instances they
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Two Systems Used Together 143
rere crowded on smaller bodies; in others they
rere put on larger bodies ; and in still other cases
a which the faces could not be transferred, new
pactional sizes, like 6£, 7£, and 8£, had to be made.
>ne alteration was especially unfortunate. The
ic6ro, which in Fournier's system was on a body
f 12 points, in Didotfs system was put on a body
f 11 points. The difference was more in name
lian in fact, nine-sixtieths of a point — an inap-
reciable difference on a single body ; but it was
uite enough to destroy the value of the old body
t cic6ro, or pica, as the established standard for
Btermining the thickness of leads and furniture.
That each body might be identified with pre-
sion, Didot rejected the old names, and gave to
wsh size a numerical name : parisienne was called
>rps 5; nompareille, corps 6; mignone, corps 7;
e£ro, corps 11, etc. The name defined the body
id showed its relations to other bodies.
The simplicity of this numerical classification,
le real need of a better standard for bodies than
ournier's prototype, and, more than Concurrent
1, the authority of such an eminent use of the
pographer as Didot, were sufficient twos y 8tem8
» constrain many French type-founders to adopt
Le new system. It was not, however, sufficiently
eritorious to overcome every objection. Many
•inters, some in Paris, but more in the provinces,
Ihered to the system of Fournier. To the great
jury of master printers the two systems were for
Digitized by VaOOQlC
^
144
Their Belation to Each Other
a long time in concurrent use. A recent French
writer on typography states that they were so
confounded in 1867 that it was almost impossi-
ble in a Parisian office to make an exact measure
from a calculation by points. 1
Pournier , s system is also known in Prance as
the System Eleven, or the Bastard System, or the
Indivisible System. The allotment by Didot of
eleven points to the old standard size of cic^ro
or pica has been wrongly attributed to Fournier,
and is supposed to have some mysterious value,
for eleven is practically an indivisible number. 2
Fournier.
Didot.
Fournier.
Didot.
Parisienne . . 5
Nompareille . 6
Mignone 7
Petit-texte . . 8
Gaillarde .... 9
. 5
. 6
. 7
• 1%
. 8
Petit-romain . . 10
Philosophie 11
Cicero 12 ..
Saint-augustin . 14 . .
Gros-texte 16
9
10
11
12
14
This table, published by a type-founder 3 at Brus-
sels, for the purpose of illustrating his ability to
furnish bodies of types made by both systems, will
i " Sous l'influence de la con-
fusion deplorable qui, en per-
mettant aux deux systemes de
s'introduire concurremment a
l'insu des raaitres imprimeurs,
a jete* une veritable perturba-
tion dans le materiel de presque
toutes les imprimeries, en sorte
qu' il y est devenu a peu pres im-
possible de rien 6tablir de juste
en calculant par points." Le-
chap, '* L'Imprimerie," No. 44.
2 The rival claims made for
Fournier and Didot as inven-
tors of the point system have
been carefully examined by M.
Cusset of Paris, and published
by him in the " Proces-verbaux
de la Soc&te' fraternelle des
Protes des Imprimeries de
Paris." Reprinted in '•L'Im-
primerie," No. 108, 1873.
3 " Specimen Book of M. T.
Vanderborght," Brussels, 1861.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Defect in the Didot System 145
e also to show the relations that the bodies of
two systems bear to each other.
is a misfortune that these scientific systems
ild have been perfected before the introduction
lie French metrical system. Four- The8y8tem8
s is imperfect in its want of basis prematurely
n established pleasure. Didot's is introduced
srfect in its selection of a disused measure for
sis. Neither of them has any direct relation
te metrical system. That of Didot is at com-
3 variance with the metre in every part. 1 The
lent that 100 points of Fournier accord with
lillimetres has led to no practical result in
ice : a standard of 35 millimetres has not been
by the French founders as a scale or mea-
for subdivision.
jfore Fournier and Didot had introduced their
*ms, cic^ro (or pica) served for a unitary stan-
, as it continues to serve in England A defect jn
America. Its dimensions were var the Didot
e, yet it was a convenient unit for 8y8tem
iation. Leads, reglets, furniture, brass rules,
large wood and metal types, were made on
is defect in the Didot sys- much smaller than the one now
as been the occasion of in use — smaller even than that
attempts to bring Didot's of Fournier or of the American
in accord with the met- system. This is a practical con-
lystem of Prance. One fession that the Didot point is
se attempts was that of too large, and that the distance
;s Verneuil, who proposed between the bodies is too great,
le unitary point should be It is not probable that this new
equal to two millimetres, plan will be accepted. "L'lm-
would make the point primerie," No. 161.
19
Digitized by VaOOQlC
146 Bruc&s System of Progression
bodies that were the multiples or divisors of ]
By Founder's method, pica or cicero was n
of twelve points, which was a divisible num
When Didot accommodated this pica to an i
division of the royal foot, and put it on body ]
his system of points, he made it virtually at
divisible unit. It is not practicable to make 1
or brass to the fractions of eleven. Intellij
Parisian typographers admit that this is a
fault, and do not hesitate to avow their prefer
for the system of Founder 1 as the more nat
and more advantageous of the two, inasmuc
it graduates the bodies of type in infinites
proportions more available than those of Did<
The first practical attempt in America at
establishment of correct proportions betweei
type bodies ? What is the
l On the contrary, M. Labou-
laye, in his " Dictionary of Arts
and Manufactures," objects to
any change in the Didot point.
He makes these observations in
the article on Fonderie en Car-
act&reSf $ 8: " Attempts have
been recently made to return to
the Fournier point by making
it in accord with the new mea-
sures. The base declared is that
100 points Fournier make ex-
actly 35 millimetres, or that the
point be equal to about 0— 35.
Now would it be wise or advan-
tageous, when the greater part
of printing houses have been
fully equipped, often at great
cost, with types on the Didot
point, to reduce the size of the
Didot in millimetres ? ' '.
nuaire ' of the Bureau of I
tudes makes the line of the
du-roi 0—2,256, of which
sixthis 0— 376. Should this
revolution in sizes be m«
cause the point should be (
instead of 0—376? The
decimal division is not 1
than the second. An exact
metric division should be <
lished on another basis, oi
which would not upset a
materials now in use, and
for so little benefit." Thei
servations are given at l<
to show that the point &
of Didot is not, even in ]
accepted as a perfect systc
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Bruce 1 s System of Progression 147
oximate bodies of types was made by the late
sorge Bruce of New York in 1822. It does not
pear that he meant to establish a new The Bruce
ties of sizes. His object was to make system of
types properly correlated with as p™* 16881011
tie disturbance as possible to the bodies then in
£ular use.
As the most used bodies of brevier, long-primer,
d pica were, in most foundries, very nearly cor-
3t in their relations to each other, these bodies
ire taken as the ones which should be least dis-
rbed, and to which the others should be made to
aform; but the intermediate and so-called irreg-
ar sizes were adjusted to the regular sizes with-
t regard to old usage. Bruce began his change
determining the exact size of the six standard
dies from pica to minion. This done, the dimen-
>ns of larger or smaller bodies were determined
the multiplication or division of the six standard
dies. Conformity was obtained by making the
dies increase by the rule of geometrical progres-
ra. Small-pica was made as much larger than
ag-primer as bourgeois was made larger than
evier. Each body was made a certain percent-
e larger than its proximate smaller body. This
rcentage expressed in figures is the decimal
22462, which, when increased six times in a series
expanding bodies, doubles on the seventh pro-
ession the size of the body first selected. The
nice system provides for uniformity of increase
Digitized by VaOOQlC
148 Bruc&s System of Progression
The Relation of Different Bodies of Type to each othei
and to standard linear measures by the Bruce System oj
Geometrical Progression.
Bodies.
Size
in deci-
mals of
a linear
inch.
Body larger
than that
preceding
it, in deci-
mals of a
linear inch.
Ems and
decimals
of an em
in a linear
foot.
Ems and
decimals
of an em
in a square
foot
Diamond
Pearl
Agate
Nonpareil
Minion
Brevier
Bourgeois
Long-primer . . .
Small-pica
Pica
English
Columbian
Great-primer . . .
Paragon
Double sm.-pica
Double pica
Double english .
Double columb.
Doub. gt.-primer
Double paragon
Meridian
Canon
.0595+
.0668+
.075
.0841+
.0994+
.1060+
.1190+
.1336+
.15
.1683+
.1889+
.2121+
.2381+
.2672+
.3
.3367+
.3779+
.4242+
.4762+
.5345+
.6
.6734+
.0072+
.0081+
.0091+
.0103+
.0115+
.0129+
.0145+
.0163+
.0183+
.0206+
.0231+
.0259+
.0291+
.0327+
.0367+
.0412+
.0462+
.0519+
.0583+
.0654+
.0734+
201.587+
179.593+
160.
142.543+
126.992+
113.137+
100.793+
89.796+
80.
71.271+
63.496+
56.568+
50.396+
44.898+
40.
35.635+
31.748+
28.284+
25.198+
22.449+
20.
17.817+
40,637.46+
32,253.97+
25,600.
20,318.73+
16,126.98+
12,800.
10,159.36+
8,063.49+
6,400.
5,079.68+
4,031.74+
3,200.
2,539.84+
2,015.87+
1,600.
1,269.92+
1,007.93+
800.
634.96+
503.96+
400.
317.48+
From the Bruce Specimen Book of 1882.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The American Point System 149
bodies ; it brings under the rule of geometrical
agression not only the bodies but the distances
bween the bodies. It is ingenious and scientific,
t has not been adopted by any other American
pe-foundry. For sizes larger than canon it is
t so well adapted. All American and English
mders, as well as all the manufacturers of wood
>es, make their larger bodies multiples of pica,
inters prefer this system for large types, not
1 its superior facility of combination, but for its
ser division of sizes. For the smaller types the
e of geometrical progression brings bodies too
*r together.
ifter a fire, which destroyed their materials,
>rder, Luse & Co., type-founders at Chicago,
nned a system of bodies based on t^ American
picas to the American inch. Be- point system
e they had made types by the new plan, they
•ceived that its adoption would compel the mak-
f not only of new bodies, but of new faces which
uld disagree with the types of all other f oun-
es. Abandoning the system of six picas to the
:h, they took for their standard the pica of
) MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. as the one
ich would be preferred by the greater number
printers and founders. Upon this basis they
praded all smaller and larger sizes after the
ithods of Fournier. In 1878 they put on sale
ses made by this system, which they called the
nerican System of Interchangeable Type Bodies.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
150 The American Point System
At a meeting of the United States Type Foun
ders> Association, held at Niagara in 1886, a com
^ A ^ mittee was appointed to examine into
Adopted by Zl ^ j.
united states and to report upon the new system
Type Founders' Several founders objected to its basis
Association . . . , , , ,
upon a pica capriciously selected, anc
not a regular division of the foot or metre, bui
the result of the examination was the adoption ol
its leading features by a majority of founders. Ii
was found that the pica which had been selectee
could be put in accord with the metric system
although in an irregular manner. Eighty-thre<
picas were equal to thirty-five centimetres. B3
dividing the pica into twelve equal parts, and ac
cepting one of these parts as the unit, a base wa*
made for the determination of every body. Thu
twelfth part of a pica was called a point. Al
bodies of types were placed on multiples of thif
point and called by numerical names : pica wa*
12-point ; double-pica, 24-point ; four-line pica, 48
point. The numerical names defined the bodies
and the relation that each body had to the rest
This American system follows the methods oi
Fournier and Didot, differing from them only h
its selection of another body of pica as its basis.
The following table gives the sizes, as near as
they can be expressed in decimals of the Americai
inch and the French metre, of the American poinl
system of type-bodies, as they were adopted by
the United States Type Founders' Association.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The American Point System 151
Size in
inches.
Size in cen-
timetres.
No. of ems
per foot.
No. of ems
per metre.
L-point. .,
m-point
2-point. .
SVfe-point
J-point. .
J^fc-point
Upoint. .
IVfc-point
>-point. .
>Vfc-point
*-point. .
r-I>oint..
J-point. .
)-point..
>-point..
L-point..
5-point. .
L-point. .
npoint. .
&-point. .
(-point. .
>-point. .
(-point.,
l-point..
l-point..
>-point. .
5-point..
t-point. .
►-point. .
l-point. .
t-point . .
l-point..
r-point..
>-point. .
l-point. .
0.0138
.0207
.0277
.0346
.0415
.0484
.0553
.0622
.0692
.0761
.083
.0968
.1107
.1245
.1383
.1522
.166
.1937
.2075
.2213
.249
.2767
.3044
.332
.3874
.415
.4426
.498
.5534
.581
.6088
.664
.747
.83
.9%
0.0351
.0527
.0703
.0878
.1054
.1230
.1406
.1581
.1757
.1933
.2108
.2460
.2811
.3163
.3514
.3865
.4217
.4920
.5271
.5622
.6325
.7028
.7730
.8434
.9840
1.0542
1.1244
1.2651
1.4056
1.4759
1.5460
1.6867
1.8975
2.1084
2.5301
867.4699
578.3132
433.7349
346.9880
289.1566
247.8486
216.8675
192.7711
173.4940
157.7218
144.5783
123.9243
108.4337
96.3855
86.7470
78.8609
72.2892
61.9621
57.8313
54.2170
48.1928
43.3735
39.4304
36.1446
30.9810
28.9157
27.1085
24.0964
21.6867
20.6540
19.7152
18.0723
16.0642
14.4578
12.0482
2845.7143
1897.1428
1422.8572
1138.2856
948.5714
813.0612
711.4286
632.3810
569.1428
517.4026
474.2857
406.5306
355.7142
316.1905
284.5714
258.7013
237.1429
203.2653
189.7143
177.8571
158.0952
142.2857
129.3506
118.5714
101.6326
94.8571
88.9280
79.0476
71.1428
67.7551
64.6753
59.2857
52.6984
47.4285
39.5238
Digitized by LjOOQLC
152 Basis of the American System
The methods agreed upon by the United State
Type Founders' Association for the purpose c
securing uniformity under the new system seei
to be practically satisfactory. A graduated me*
suring rod of steel, 35 centimetres or 83 picas i
length, is made a common measure for all bodie
of type. It does not appear, however, that ever
type-founder who has adopted this system ha
ready access to an official metre, on which th
measure of 35 centimetres depends. Some of thei
seem to trust the testing of their types to th
A gauge for type-bodies.
This gauge or smaller measure
consists of three bars of steel
accurately fitted and firmly con-
nected as is shown in the illus-
tration. The space between the
short side bars is exactly 288
points, which admits 24 bodies of
pica, 36 bodies of brevier, and
bodies of nonpareil. Of the inte
mediate sizes, it takes 26 bodl
and 2 points of small-pica; :
bodies, 8 points of long-prime]
82 bodies, 8 points of bourgeol
42 bodies, 1 point of minion.
smaller measure. It has been claimed that thei
is no reason why an official metre should be usee
as the fixed and unalterable length of the meti
can be determined by mathematical calculation. 1
iThe metre is the ten-mil- ridian between the pole and tl
lionth part of the arc of a me- equator, or 3.2808992 feet.
Digitized by V3OOQIC
Proposed Change of Height 153
lie measuring rod of 35 centimetres was also
gested as a good standard for determining the
?ht-to-paper of type. By this plan p^^
jen type-heights were made equal to change of
centimetres. This is a serious devi- type-* 61 * 11 *
n from the old standard of eleven-twelfths, or
16 of an inch. One-fifteenth of 35 centimetres
>186 of an inch. The difference of T ^o o or jl o
b of an inch may seem very trivial, but it is
ugh to prevent the use of the different heights
he same line.
ome founders claim to have adhered to the old
idard of height ; others have adopted the new.
)se who have adopted the new bodies without
ipecial refitting of all their old matrices are
ing to printers a greater annoyance than was
A gauge for height-to-paper.
pes can be tested by printers
te1ght-to-paper by this sim-
Qstrument of steel, recently
Qted by Henry Barth, of the
innatl Type Foundry. The
A C is very slightly out of
nel with the line 8 D. A
of proper height will pass
yin the channel toward the
c E, in which channel it is
20
held straight and square by the
movable brass H that slides in a
slot. The type that stops in the
channel before it reaches the slot
is too high ; the type that passes
the slot or the mark E is too
low. Type-founders make use of
a more complicated instrument
which will show a deviation of
less than 3( fo inch.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
154 The French Point too Large
ever received from irregular bodies. Soon aftc
the new point system was adopted, complaint
changes were heard from press-rooms that som
in height types were high-to-paper. The fault wa
injurious no ti C eable in lines in which were sorts c
newly cast types. Compositors were blamed fc
a bad planing-down of forms, and electrotypei
for their bad moulding, and the office for permi
ting a mixture of old type with new sorts ; but
testing of the unworn type of the first casting wit
those that were newly cast plainly showed that th
real fault was in the altered standard of height.
It would be a great benefit if the types of Franc<
Germany, and America were uniform as to bod^
Didot point so that types bought in one countr
is too large cou i d be used in ail0 ther. The Unite
States Type Founders' Association considered thi
question, but they were obliged to reject theFrenc
system : the Didot point was too large ; it mad
the distance between bodies too great.
To adopt the Didot point would have compelle
the retirement not only of the greater part of th
moulds and matrices now in use, but also the r(
cutting of new punches for many sizes. It woul
have been a forsaking of the better for the worse
a rejection of a system of convenient division
for one of larger divisions that were not as coi
venient. The point adopted by the United State
Type Founders' Association is .0351 + centimetn
This deviates but little from the point devised ii
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Origin of the American Point 155
' by Fournier, the true inventor of the point
em. The point substituted by AmbroiseFirmin-
;>t is .0376+ centimetre, eleven points of which
almost as large as twelve American points. 1
lie explanatory diagram which follows this page
•om the foundry of the MacKellar, Smiths &
Ian Co. It may be accepted as an official rep-
ntation of the bodies of the American system.
i the Fournier system 1000
s make 35 centimetres ; in
merican system 996 points
s 35 centimetres. Itisprob-
that the American system,
t on the pica of the Mac-
,r, Smiths & Jordan Co.,
unwittingly derived from
nier. Thomas says, in his
jtory of Printing in Amer-
(vol. i, p. 29, second edi-
, that Benjamin Franklin
based of P. S. Fournier
materials of an old f oun-
' and had his grandson,
. Bache, instructed in the
y Fournier, with intent to
dish an extensive foundry
hiladelphia. The foundry
itablished did not thrive ;
s neglected and abandoned
ache, but after Franklin's
i the type-founding tools
me the property of his rela-
Duane, who kindly offered
md them all to Binny &
ildson, then the only foun-
of importance in that city,
ildson was struck with their
riority, and fearing that
oe might change his mind,
at once got a wheelbarrow and
trundled them to his own foun-
dry. Binny acknowledged that
he received many valuable sug-
gestions from these tools. With
this testimony as to the value
of the tools, added to our know-
ledge of Franklin's interest in
scientific instruments of every
kind, it may be assumed that
Fournier sold not old but new
tools, and that he had provided
everything needed to establish
his point system in America, in
the equipment which he fur-
nished to Bache. There can be
no doubt that Binny & Ronald-
son had, and made use of, the
Fournier mould for pica, and
that the standard they fixed for
this body was accepted by their
successors, L. Johnson & Co.
and the MacKellar, Smiths &
Jordan Co. The slight devia-
tion from the Fournier stan-
dard of four points in one thou-
sand may be accepted as the
consequence of unintended and
graduallyimperceptible changes
which would occur after a long
use of moulds in early days.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
156
f
American Point Bodies
im II m i
nil
8M M M M
1 ■ ■ I
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Three Scientific Systems Contrasted 157
Number of Urns to Linear Foot
Lmerican system.
Bruce system.
Didot system.
3-point. .
3^-point
1-point. .
fc^-point
5-point. .
5^-point
3-point. .
r-point . . ,
3-point. .
J-point. . .
)-point. .
L -point. . .
2-point. .
t-point.
5-point. .
3-point. .
3-point. .
)-point. .
2-point. .
fc-point. .
3-point. .
)-point . . .
2-point . .
5-point. .
)-point . .*
2-point. .
fc-point. .
3-point. .
289.15
247.84
216.86
192.77
173.49
157.72
144.57
123.92
108.43
96.38
86.74
78.86
72.28
61.96
57.83
54.21
48.19
43.37
39.43
36.14
30.98
28.91
27.10
24.09
21.68
20.65
19.71
18.07
Diamond 201.58
Pearl 179.59
Agate 160.
Nonpareil. . .142.54
Minion 126.99
Brevier 113.13
Bourgeois... 100.79
Long-primer 89.79
Small-pica . . 80.
Pica 71.27
English 63.49
Columbian . . 56.56
Great-primer 50.39
Paragon .... 44.89
Dbl. sm.-pica 40.
Double pica. 35.63
Dbl. english . 31.74
Dbl. columb. 28.28
Dbl. gt.-prim. 25.19
Dbl. paragon 22.44
Meridian .... 20.
Canon 17.81
Body 3...
Body 3*6 .
Body 4...
Body 4^ .
Body 5...
Body &V 2 .
Body 6...
Body Q% .
Body 7...
Body 1% .
Body 8...
Body 9 . .
Body 10.
Body 11.
Body 12.
Body 13.
Body 14.
Body 16.
Body 18.
Body 20.
Body 22.
Body 24.
Body 26.
Body 32.
Body 40.
Body 48.
.270.23
.231.62
.202.67
.180.14
.162.13
.147.38
.135.11
.124.72
.115.81
.108.09
.101.33
. 90.07
. 81.06
. 73.69
. 67.55
. 62.36
. 57.90
. 50.66
. 45.03
. 40.53
. 36.84
. 33.77
. 31.18
. 25.33
. 20.26
. 16.89
Digitized by VaOOQlC
158 Proportions of English Types
The bodies of English types have been chang«
since they were reported in Savage's Dictionary
English Sizes: Ems to the linear foot. 2
Sizes.
Miller
and
Richard.
Stephen-
son and
Blake.
Figgins.
Caslon.
Sir
Chart
Reed
Sons
Pica
Small-pica
Long-primer
Bourgeois
Brevier
•71^
83
89
102^
111
122
138
143
160
166
178
207
222
237
286
72
83
89
102^
111
123
129
144
161
166
179
72
83
90
102
108^
122
128
144
160
166
183
204
288
72
83-2
89-5
102
1113
122-4
128-s
144
178-6
203
72
83
91
102
111
Minion
Emerald
Nonpareil
Euby-nonpareil . .
Ruby
122
128
144
160
166
Pearl
Diamond
Gem
181
204
Brilliant
Semi-nonpareil . .
If the point of the American system had be
based on the plan of six picas to the inch, it
possible that English and American bodies cor
have been brought to agreement, and that a s^
tern of points on this basis would not have n
with any determined opposition in England.
i See p. 128 of this work.
2 01dfield, "Manual of Typog-
raphy," p. 98. He says that the
figures given in this table w
verified for its own type by ei
foundry named therein.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
The American Point System 159
his American point system has been adopted
nany founders, and in time will probably sup-
it all other systems in America,
lough it is of great advantage to syste^d!^
printing trade to get more uni- not insure
nity, too much has been expected *** ** " yp6
q this point system. It reduces but does not en-
Ly prevent irregularities. That it will ever be so
:ect that types of the same body from different
iders can unhesitatingly be mixed and used
sther is not probable. System alone is not
ugh. Perfection in theory will not make skill
aanuf acture a matter of secondary importance,
ler the new system good type-founding will ex-
Eus much watchfulness as ever. The irregular-
\ that are caused by overheated metal, sprung
mtested moulds, or careless rubbing, are as
;ible now as they ever were. The founder
has been careless under the old system will
>ably be equally careless under the new.
he advantages that may accrue from uniform
ies will be more than nullified if general uni-
oity in height is not secured. If some type-
lders continue to adhere to the old standard
leight, while others attempt to introduce the
, without a careful refitting of special matrices
ie new moulds, the printing trade will be more
laged than benefited by the change,
rinters can test their types, chiefly as to body,
also as to height-to-paper, by means of the
Digitized by V3OOQLC
160
The Use of the Type-gauge
type-gauge, of which an illustration is here given
The two jaws or graduated faces are very slightly
out of parallel, at an angle so slender as to be un
perceived until they
are held against the
light. The thumb-
piece allows the un-
der jaw to be ad-
justed on the slide to
fit any body. When
set to the proper gauge, a type
too small will pass in it beyond
how types the gauge line; a type
are tested too large will not reach to
the gauge line. Type-founders usu-
ally test the distrusted bodies by put-
ting four of the type-bodies between
the jaws, first at the shoulder and
then at the foot of the types. An ex-
ceedingly slight inaccuracy that may
escape notice on one body will be de-
tected when four bodies are together.
One of the advantages claimed for
all systems of typographic points is
their helpfulness in justifying. But
this advantage is much overrated.
Quite as much special justification Type-gauge,
seems to be done in French as in
American offices. Unless the leads, brass rules
and other material of composition are true frac
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Points applied to Spaces 161
is of the point, this facility in justification is
sated. 1 Those who have experience in compo-
>n, and who know how the bodies of G id types
bs, leads, and rules are bent and thick- difficult
d by usage, by dust, rust, and imper- t0jU8tify
; cleaning, and how much allowance must be
ie, fcoth in the width and length of a column
>age, for the " spring " of types or their contrac-
t in the process of locking-up, will acknowledge
t types do not combine in practice as easily as
heory.
a the composition of algebraic work, the point
bem is helpful. A twelve-to-pica lead will make
kification between proximate bodies New 8y8tem
>rdinary size. It is not enough to is helpful
ire exact justification in the compo- ** algebpa
Dn of good book and job work 5 where two sizes
e to be used together exact lining is required,
this is rarely accomplished by the use of the
lve-to-pica lead. For the justification of the
ximate sizes smaller than nonpareil, a twenty-
r-to-pica is required, for which thickness there
no leads. The compositor will have to justify
se bodies, as he did before, with strips of paper
I cardboard.
Tie point system, or a modification of it, has
n applied to the set or width of types. The
entors of various forms of type-writing ma-
le " Scale of Prices " of the and 1878 contains many articles
aian compositors for 1868 that price special justification.
21
Digitized by V3OOQLC
162 " Self-spacing » Types
chines had previously discovered the importance
of types that were of one width. The first practi-
Points ap- ca, l attempt at systematic uniformity in
plied to the the set of printing types was made in
set of type 18g ^ by Benton> Wftldo & Co ^ type .
founders at Milwaukee, who introduced the system
as that of "self -spacing" types. Their plan was to
put every type, on all the bodies from agate to
pica inclusive, on some set which was an even di-
vision of the standard pica em. These divisions
varied according to size of body, from an eighth
to a thirteenth of the pica em. The object sought
was the quickening of composition by providing
better facilities for spacing. As a composed line
of types and spaces made on this system is bu1
a combination of the regular divisions of pica, ii
was claimed that the types so composed must end
evenly on every line, and thereby prevent much oi
the trouble of spacing.
In placing the characters of the font on ever
divisions of the pica, many difficulties were met
Defects of The form of one character might be toe
the system na rrow f or one set but the next might
be too wide. The alternatives were to give this
character a too broad or a too narrow set, or tc
recut the punch so as to keep the character on the
prescribed set. The result of the earlier experi-
ments was not satisfactory : the general effect oJ
the composed types was that of neglected fitting.
Later efforts at improvement have removed many
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Spaces on Point Sets
163
the earlier infelicities, but the publishers and
titers who are critical do not accept the " self-
cing" types as proper models of form. More
movement is needed, but there is every reason
relieve that this improvement can be made,
lie advantages of " self -spacing " types to com-
itors are beyond question ; the new method
jely reduces the labor of spacing.
The Point System applied to Spaces. 1
Six-
Five-
Four-
Three-
Patent
En
Em
Bodies.
to-em
to-em
to-em
to-em
space.
quad-
quad-
space.
space.
space.
space.
Aofem.
rats.
rats.
-point. .
1
*IH
*2
212
5
J^-point
•1
*1^
*2
*2l2
*3
512
-point . .
1
1^
2
*2^
3
6
-point. .
•1
*ll2
*2
*2%
*3
3*2
7
-point. .
*1
'l 1 *
2
*2l2
*3
4
8
-point. .
1*2
*2
*2%
3
*3l2
4^
9
-point . .
*1^
2
2*3
*3
*4
5
10
-point
*2
*2ls
*3
*3*2
*4l^
5l2
11
-point . .
2
*2^
3
4
*5
6
12
-point. .
*2
*3
*4
*5
*6
7
14
-point .
*2
*3
*4
6
9
18
[*he Central Type Foundry of St. Louis have
>posed to apply the point system to spaces only,
putting every space of every body on spaces on
i set of one point or on the multiples p 0111 * 8ete
the point. As the point is but about -fe and the
1 " Price-list of Central Type Foundry," p. 5.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
164 Spaces on Point Sets
half point about yj-? of an inch, the divisions ar
sufficiently minute. Rigid adherence to this sy*
tern will compel the making of some new width
of spaces, and possibly in some fonts the makin
of figures on new sets, but spaces on point sel
will be a valuable aid to justification, especially i
the narrow columns of table-work.
The changes from the old sets now in use ai
marked in the table with a *.
The patent space is intended to be the interim
diate between a three-to-em space and an en quae
rat — or about five-twelfths of the em body. It hi
been in use for years in some large book offices.
The only en quadrat changed is that of the &
point, which is made a trifle thicker. This shou]
compel the putting of figures on a set of the sano
thickness or the retention of the en quadrat of tk
old form.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
IV
A Font of Type
PONT of type is a complete collec-
tion, with a proper apportionment to
each character, of the mated types
required for an ordinary text. The
letters are in unequal request : a and
tppear repeatedly in long sentences; Z and q
y not be found in a page. The type-founder
>s to supply each character in proportion to its
[juency of use, so that the printer shall have
nigh of every and not too much of any character,
[■he written or printed summary of the proper
mtity of types for each character is known in
United States as a scheme, and in a scheme
3at Britain as a bill, of type. For large of *ype
tal types, or for wood types that are used only
single lines of display, the scheme is made by
>ount of the characters, as may be seen in the
166
Digitized by VaOOQlC
166 A Scheme for Wood Type
annexed scheme for a 5-A anc
5-a font of wood type :
Figures are not provided f oi
all fonts of large type. Whei
provided, they are furnished f oi
a 5-a font in the proportion o:
two types each of characters 2
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, $; three typei
for figure 1 ; five types for fig
ure 0. Fonts of 3-A are some
times made for very large types
but for ordinary types the 5-i
font is the smallest.
The font of 5-A, with figures
has two hundred and fifty chai
acters, but it seldom happen
that more than fifty of them ca
be used at one time. If thes
fifty letters contain six of E an
five of A, no more lines can t
set that call for A or E. Bi
the provision in the scheme f c
two hundred other characters
necessary; some of them or a
of them will be needed on oth<
work or at another time. 3
fonts of metal type of larg
sizes, and in all fonts of di
play letter, the schemes do n<
include spaces or quadrats.
122
104
Letters.
Letters.
5-A
5-a
Capitals.
Lower-case.
A 5
a 5
B 3
b 3
C 4
c 4
D 4
d 4
E 6
e 6
F 3
f 3
G 3
I I
H 4
I 5
i 5
J 3
i i
K 2
L 6
1 5
M 4
m 4
N 5
n 5
5
o 5
P 3
P 3
Q 2
E 5
q \
r 5
S 6
s 5
T 5
t 5
U 4
u 4
V 3
v 3
W 3
w 3
X 2
x 2
Y 3
y 3
Z 2
z 2
& 2
ro 1
. 4
03 1
, 4
fi 1
; 2
fl 1
: 2
ff 1
- 1
ffi 1
> 2
ffl 1
! 3
M and
CE are
seldom ]
>rovided.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Scheme for a Job Font
Wood types are sold at a
ed price for every letter ;
jtal types at a fixed price by
3 pound.
For larger fonts of wood
pe or jobbing letter, different
portionments are made, as is
own in the annexed scheme
t a 36-A and 70-a font,
[n the United States the ap-
rtionment of each character
fonts intended for book or
wspaper work is made by
ight. In Great Britain the
portionment is made, nom-
dly at least, by a count of
wacters.
rhe apportionment of char-
ters is necessarily varied for
factors different languages,
need The English printer
quany who buyg a ji rendl
it of type soon discovers its
ficiency of k and W, and its
3ess of q and \ The French
inter who bought an Eng-
bt font would object to the
Bess of the k and W, and the
Sciency of the q and \ Ital-
i calls for a larger supply of
167
70-a.
36-A
a 70
A 36
b 28
B 15
c 37
C 24
d 42
D 19
e 92
E 43
f 28
P 17
e 24
E 47
G 17
H 19
i 70
I 36
J 14
J 9
k 14
K 9
1 47
L 24
m 37
M 19
n 70
N 36
o 70
O 36
p 28
P 19
q 10
a 6
r 70
B 36
s 70
S 36
t 70
T 36
u 37
XT 19
v 14
V 9
w 28
W 15
x 10
X 6
y 28
Y 15
z 10
Z 6
8B 5
& 6
oe 5
-ffi 3
fi 8
<E 3
ff 8
1 16
fl 5
2 12
ffi 5
3 12
ffl 5
4 12
, 37
5 12
; 5
6 12
: 5
7 12
. 37
8 12
8
9 12
♦ 10
O 16
! 5
P 8
$ 10
£ 3
Digitized by VaOOQlC
168 Object of the Scheme
C and Z; Spanish, for more of d, t, and all th(
vowels; Latin, for more of C, m, n, "U, and q,
For any language but English the scheme of th<
American or English type-founder is unsuitable.
The scheme is not, and cannot be, nicely adaptec
to every kind of literary composition in English
For poetry there must be a large excess of quad
rats; for the personal narrative, an excess of I
for tables or statistics, an excess of figures ; f oi
dictionaries and catalogues, an excess of capitals
signs, and points. Even in plain descriptive mat
ter, apparently free from any peculiarity, the com
positor will note that a latinized style will use ai
excess of one kind of sorts, and a colloquial styl
an excess of other sorts. For peculiar work th<
printer must select and order an excess of th<
characters that are most needed.
The object of the scheme is so to apportion eacl
character that all the types in the font may be sel
Object of out of case, leaving no surplus. This ob
a scheme j ec t i s never attained. When a composite]
reports that a new font of text-type has been se
out, as a rule about one-third of the weight of th<
font remains unused in case. The purchase an<
use of more of the deficient characters may reduc<
the surplus to one-fourth — perhaps one-fifth — bu
it is not probable that it can ever be made any less
There will always be a large surplus. It follows tha
the printer must provide from one-fourth to one
half more type than he can put to use at one time
Digitized by V3OOQLC
General Agreement of Schemes 169
chemes are not exactly alike in all foundries,
they are in substantial agreement : the propor-
i of capitals to lower-case, and the supply of
ires, italic, and quadrats do not seriously differ.
l so-called complete font of roman and italic
e is supposed to have these characters :
ian atoz and re oe fiff ffifl ffl 33
ian points . , ; : - ' ! f ( [ 10
ian figures and money signs, 1234567890$£ 12
268 and quadrats • 1 1 1 1 1 ■ ^H HHI 8
arences * 1 1 1 } f EF 3 7
868 / A \ /^-~ /v^^s 5
hes 4
ders 4
etions %%%%%%%%% 9
ian capitals A to Z and JECE& 29
ian small capitals . .a to z and m <e & 29
ic lower-ease a to z and ceod fi ff ffi ffi fl 33
ic capitals A to Z and M (E f 29
ic points ; : ! t ( 5
ents, a a a a a eeee 1 1 i X 6 6 6 6 ti u u 1i c n »
fi add a a 4 hie i\i% 6b 6 6 Hitiiii gfttf.. 25
er marks <a) *§, lb ° ' 5
nish marks ao|)fiy*}» 6
253
amber of characters .
Phe actual weight of the so-called one-thousand-
md font is in excess of one thousand pounds ;
b it is made so purposely by the addition of
ts that can be omitted if the purchaser desires,
e supply of italic, quadrats, spaces, or any other
•t can also be increased.
22
Digitized by VaOOQlC
170
A Thousand-pound Font
Scheme for one thousand pounds of roman and
italic as made by George Bruc&s Son & Co.
Roman
Roman
Points,
lbs. oz.
Italic
lower-case.
capitals.
lower-case.
lbs. oz.
lbs. oz.
lbs. oz.
a .. 37
A .. 5
t
.10
a . . 5
b .. 10
B . . 3 12
J
. 2 8
b .
1 4
c .. 17
C . . 3 12
. 1 14
c .
2 6
d .. 25
D . . 3 12
.
. 5
d .
3 2
e .. 57
E .. 5
- .
. 5
e .
6 4
f .. 11 4
F .. 3 12
9
. 1 14
f •
1 14
g • • 11 4
h . . 32 8
G . 3 12
I '
10
f :
1 14
H . . 3 12
i !
10
4 6
i .. 25
I .. 2 8
( •
10
• .
3 2
i . . 1 14
k . . 3 12
J .. 1 14
[ •
10
i.
7
K . . 1 14
10
1 .. 12 8
L . . 3 12
i .
1 14
m.. 25
M . . 3 12
m .
3 2
n .. 37
N . . 3 12
n .
5
o .. 37
. . 3 12
Figures.
o .
4 6
p . . 11 4
P . . 3 12
1 .. 5
2.4 6
3 . . 3 12
4 .. 3 12
5 . . 3 12
6.3 2
7.3 2
8 .. 3 2
9.32
0.5
$..14
£.. 10
P •
1 14
q.. 4
r .. 25
s .. 30
t .. 31
Q . . 1 14
R . . 3 12
S . . 3 12
T .. 5
r .
8 .
t .
10
3 12
4 4
4 4
u . . 18 4
U .. 2 8
u .
2 10
v .. 7 8
V . . 1 14
v .
1 4
w.. 15 8
W . . 3 12
w .
2 8
x . . 1 14
X .. 10
x .
7
y . . 11 4
Y .. 2 8
y •
1 14
z . . 1 14
Z .. 10
z .
7
ce .. 10
m.. 6
ce .
4
08.. 10
CE.. 6
ce .
4
fi . . 3 12
& . . 1 14
fi •
14
ff .. 2 8
ffi.
14
ffi.. 2 8
ff'
14
fl . . 1 14
Quadrats.
Spaces.
fi-
10
ffl . . 1 14
n .. 20
3m.. 60
ffl.. 10
m .. 13
4m.. 15
2m.. 44 8
5m.. 8 4
3m . 44 8
hair. 1 14
Digitized by V3OOQLC
A Thousand-pound Font
171
theme for one thousand pounds of roman and
italic as made by George Brucds Son & Co.
Italic
References.
8mall
Roman
Italic
capitals.
capitals.
accents.
accents.
oz.
lbs. oz.
oz.
oz.
oz.
i .. 18
* .. 7
A .. 18
a .. 10
d .. 4
3 .. 14
t 7
B .
14
a .
14
d .. 4
7 .. 14
t •• 7
c .
14
a
14
4 .. 4
D . . 14
II .. 7
D .
14
a .
4
a .. 4
G .. 18
$ .. 7
E .
18
6 .
14
6 .. 4
F . . 14
1F .. 7
P .
14
e .
10
* .. 4
£ .. 14
1^ 14
G .
14
e .
12
4 .. 4
ff.. 14
H .
14
6 .
4
e .. 4
r .. 10
Braces.
I .
10
i
7
i .. 4
J . 7
r- •• 4
J .
7
1
4
i .. 4
K .. 7
-**.
4
K .
7
i .
4
* .. 4
L .. 14
-^ .
4
L .
14
i .
4
i' .. 4
8f.. 14
2m.
. 1 4
M .
14
6 .
10
6 .. 4
AT. 14
3m.
. 1 4
N .
14
6 .
4
d .. 4
.. 14
.
14
6 .
4
<J .. 4
P.. 14
Dashes.
P .
14
6 .
4
o .. 4
e • 7
n .. 6
Q •
7
ti .
10
w . . 4
B .. 14
m .. 2 8
B .
14
u .
4
A .. 4
S .. 14
2m.. 2 8
S .
14
u .
10
d .. 4
r. is
3m. 2 8
T .
18
ii .
4
w .. 4
cr.. io
V .. 7
Leaders.
U .
V .
10
7
9
n .
4
6
fl .. 4
W.. 14
n .. 1 4
w .
14
ff .
4
# . 4
X.. 4
m .. 2 8
X .
4
N .
4
<3f .. 4
7. 10
2m.. 5
Y .
10
a .
10
# .. 4
Z . 4
3m.. 7 8
Z .
4
6 .
10
<& .. 4
i».. 4
ffi.. 4
Fractions.
4
4
a .
4
*• .. 6
14
& .
6
14
Spanish
Italic
14
Commer-
marks.
points.
7
cial marks.
a .. 10
; .. 8
7
<a) .. 20
6 . . 10
: .. 8
7
1ft.. 20
i> .. 20
/ .. 4
7
ft .. 20
fi .. 20
t .. 4
!
7
° .. 10
y .. 20
f .. 4
7
' .. 10
♦$•..20
Digitized
by Google
172 Accents Not Always Provided
The full font of roman text-type as provided
by the founder is always accompanied with italic,
characters which should be of the same face or style
deficient as the roman. The apportionment for
in italic italic does not give as many characters
as for the roman. Small capitals for italic are
made only to order. Figures, fractions, references,
and some of the points of the roman serve for the
italic. Italic figures are furnished to some fonts
by some foundries, but only on special order.
All the characters specified are furnished by the
larger foundries with every entire font of roman
characters * rom *£*& *° pi ca * ^ n english and sizes
deficient above, many of the minor sorts and all
in roman ^ j^^g are omitted. For sizes above
great-primer, small capitals are not provided. Bril-
liant has no small capitals, or fractions, or accents,
and few of the minor sorts. Although rated as
complete, the regular font of roman has no accents
for roman capitals or small capitals, and none for
italic capitals, which are furnished only to order,
in small quantities of one or two ounces to each
character.
The list includes all the characters needed for
ordinary work, but for foreign languages, or for
Accents are scientific books, other characters must
not always be used. All educational works require
provided ft } ar g e ^ g {. f j Qn g ftn( j g^^ vowels;
dictionaries, a large number of diacritical marks,
most of which have to be designed and cut to
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Accents and Fractions 173
ler; Portuguese, Danish and other languages
ve peculiar marks which must also be made to
ler. As a rule, even the ordinary accents are
be had only in the larger f oundries.
rhe number of characters in this scheme is 253,
t if characters were furnished for all the accents
foreign languages, for the signs and Aocents and
irks used in dictionaries, and books signs of but
out mathematics, chemistry, bibliog- Umited U8e
phy, astronomy, etc., the number might exceed
e hundred. No type-founder pretends to keep
3se peculiar characters for every font ; probably
printer has a complete assortment of all of
3m for any one font.
For the sizes between and including pica and
npareil small separate fonts of accents, for the
ench and Spanish languages only, are kept in
>ck by the leading type-foundries. It should be
ted that these fonts are for lower-case only, and
not include the long and short vowel accents.
w founders have accents for agate or smaller
dies or for english and larger bodies.
Fractions on the en-body are usually furnished
th roman fonts from pearl to pica, inclusive.
ley are rarely provided for larger and scheme of
laller bodies of type. Fractions on the fractions
1 body, mostly used in newspapers, are usually
wle of the smaller sizes only, by this scheme :
H H H H % H h % %
50 50 40 25 25 25 20 20 20
Digitized by VaOOQlC
174 Space Occupied by Type
Piece fractions, or split fractions in two pieces,
or on two bodies, are not proper parts of the font,
and are sold in separate fonts at higher rates.
Superiors of figures or of letters, like * or a , are
furnished only to order. These also are not con-
superior sidered as proper parts of the font. The
characters fij^ figures or letters of these superiors
are furnished in great excess because they are most
used. Superiors and piece fractions are made only
for the larger sizes.
When a font of new type has been put in case,
it should be set up until one sort is exhausted. If
after composition there be left in case a large sur-
plus, a list of the characters most needed should be
ordered from the founder to make the assortment
even. But after a repeated re-sorting of the cases
it will always be found that a large surplus is
unavoidably left.
One pound of metal type, as packed and sold by
type-founders, covers a space of about three and
space occu- six-tenths square inches. To find the
pied by type we ight of one page of type 1 composed
in high spaces, divide its number of square inches
by the figures 3.6. To find the weight of a font
required to compose a given number of pages,
provision must be made for a large surplusage of
1 Example. This page is set were composed with low spaces
up with high spaces and leads : and leads, the weight would be a
it contains 15 square inches, trifle less. Changes in sizes of
which divided by 3.6 shows a type make but little difference
weight of 4.27 pounds. If it in the weight per square inch.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
How Weights are Calculated 175
es. The proportion of this surplus is variable.
• a small font, the type-founder's rule is to add
-half to the computed weight of the a surplus
lposed types. For a font of two thou- i8 needed
d pounds or more, this surplus need not be
itivelyas great; an addition of one-fourth to
weight of the composed matter may be enough,
calculations of this kind are but guesses. No
titer or type-founder can exactly foresee how
equally copy yet to be written will exhaust sorts.
>V>r all work that has to be done in haste, for
rspapers and magazines that have to keep in
>e postponed articles or alternated how weights
rertisements, a font of twice the of fonts are
[ght of the composed matter will calculated
; be enough. Morning newspapers that fre-
mtly issue supplements of four or more pages,
1 that keep in type large quantities of matter,
ermine the size of the fonts by the number of
ir compositors, allowing three, six, and some-
ies ten days' supply of type to each compositor,
adrats are the sorts most frequently deficient
the ordinary font when it is applied to general
k-work. Next in liability to excessive demand
figures, which are soon exhausted by a series
tables. Every large book or newspaper office
lbles, and sometimes quadruples, the amount
portioned to some characters of the scheme.
1 large and well-sorted font is always economi-
as to service. It enables a master printer to corn-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
176
Capacity of Different Fonts
plete work quickly without delays or stoppages f oi
sorts. It wears better. One font of one thousan<
pounds will give more service than two fonts o
five hundred pounds bought and used successively
The following table gives the probable capacity
of fonts of different weights when used for plaii
descriptive matter that does not call for an extra
supply of peculiar sorts :
The number of solid pages that may be composed
with fonts of different weights.
Allow
for sur-
plus in
cases.
Weight
of
font.
Square
inches
of com-
posi-
tion.
Page of
40
square
inches.
Page of
30
square
inches.
Page of
25
square
inches.
Page of
20
square
inches.
Page of
15
square
inches.
40
100
216
5.40
7.20
8.64
10.80
14.44
70
200
468
11.70
15.60
' 18.72
23.40
31.20
100
300
720
18.00
24.00
28.80
36.00
48.00
133
400
861
21.52
28.70
34.40
43.04
57.40
160
500
1164
29.10
38.80
46.40
58.20
77.60
180
600
1512
37.80
50.40
60.48
75.60
100.80
225
750
1890
47.25
63.00
75.60
94.50
126.00
300
1000
2520
63.00
84.00
100.80
126.00
168.00
375
1500
4050
102.25
135.00
162.00
204.50
270.00
500
2000
5400
135.00
180.00
216.00
270.00
360.00
Favored by suitable copy, one may compos
more pages than are specified in these calcula
tions, but it is unsafe to plan on the probabilit;
of a greater production. For copy that has appai
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Composition Extended by Leads 111
ly but a slight excess of figures, small capitals,
ic, or quadrats, the fonts will not compose the
nber of pages specified in the foregoing table.
e pound of type composed solid contains in ems :
\j or 12-point 131 Nonpareil, or 6-point. . . 524
ill-pica, or ll*point . 155 Agate, or 5^ -point 620
Lg-primer, or 10-point 188 Pearl, or 5-point 752
irgeois, or 9-point. . . 233 Diamond, or 4^-point. . 932
vier, or 8 -point 294 Brilliant, or 4-point 1176
don, or 7-point 384
Phe capacity of a font is largely extended by
\ use of leads. One pound of low leads, standing
right as they do in composed mat- ^^^
, occupies a space of about 4 square extended by
hes; one pound of stereotype or high U8eofleads
ds occupies a space of not less than 3£ square
hes. To find the weight of leads required to
a defined vacant space, divide the square inches
that space by the figure 4 for low leads, and
for high leads. The thickness of the leads for
s purpose must be determined by a count of the
nposed lines. The addition of a six-to-pica lead
a composition of pica increases the amount of
nposed matter one-sixth ; in a composition of
apareil, one-third ; in any composition from in-
mediate sizes of type, the increase is by inter-
pellate fractions.
rhe weight of six-to-pica leads needed for one
ousand ems that have already been composed
23
Digitized by VaOOQlC
178
The Weight of Leads
solid in the copy to be reprinted will vary wit
different sizes of type, as is specified in the follow
ing table. The weights given are in ounces :
Pica* 19
Small-pica 16^
Long-primer 15^
Bourgeois 13^
Brevier 13
Minion 11^
Nonpareil 9^
Agate S%
Pearl 7^
Diamond 6^
The weights of the six-to-pica leads in one thoi
sand ems of leaded composition are, in ounces :
Pica 2 16^ Minion 9
Small-pica 14 Nonpareil . . 8*£
Long-primer 12^ Agate 7
Bourgeois 11 Pearl 6
Brevier 10^ Diamond 5^
The lead most used is of the thickness six-t<
pica. For the larger sizes of long-primer, smal
The leads in pica, and pica, two of these leads ai
greatest use often used when it is desired to produ<
the appearance of greater clearness or eleganc
For bourgeois, brevier, minion, and nonpareil, tl
eight-to-pica lead is more freely used. For siz<
1 To find the weight of six-to-
pica leads required for 20 pages
of solid pica of 1200 ems each : 20
pages x 1200 ems =24,000 ems X
19=456 ounces, or 28^4 pounds.
The addition of leads expands the
composition one-sixth : making
23%, or practically 24 pages.
2 To find the weight of lea
required for 100 pages of pic
each page containing 800 em
800 ems are four-fifths of 10
ems, and four-fifths of 16
ounces or 13J ounces, which mi
tiplied by 100 pages makes 13
ounces, or 82Vfc pounds.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Square Inches Covered by Ems 179
low nonpareil, ten-to-pica leads are thick enough
make the desired relief.
mce occupied by 1000 ems solid, in square inches :
Lglish, or 14-point . . 38.48
ca, or 12-point 27.55
iall-pica, orll-point 23.16
►ng-primer, or 10-pt. 19.12
turgeois, or 9-point . . 15.50
■evier, or 8-point 12.25
Minion, or 7-point 9.37
Nonpareil, or 6-point. . 6.89
Agate, or 5^-point . . . 5.79
Pearl, or 5-point 4.78
Diamond, or 4^-point . 3.87
Brilliant, or 4-point. . . 3.06
This table will be found of value in determining
ie size of type that must be selected to make a
^finite amount of matter fill a prescribed space.
The relations which one thousand solid ems of
ly body bear to all other bodies are given in the
ble on the next page. 1
L Inexperts in the calculations
space required for a reprint
any change of size of type
ould carefully study the reta-
ins of the bodies as they are
own in these tables. It is a
mmon error to assume, De-
nse the bodies of the point
stem are put apart at fixed
d regular distances, that the
crease of ems in every change
wn a larger to a smaller body
U be in a similar form of even
d exact progression. On the
ntrary, the progression is un-
en and inexact. In the space
27.55 square inches occupied
' 1000 ems of pica can be put
90 ems of small-pica. This is
i increase of 19 per cent. In the
9.37 square inches occupied by
1000 ems of minion can be put
1361 ems of nonpareil. This is
an increase of 36 per cent. A
comparison of bodies on half-
points, as between 5V&- and 5-
point, will show a similar irreg-
ularity. It is not possible, in the
American point system, to name
one factor which will show the
increase or decrease between
proximate bodies. Every body
is increased or diminished in un-
even proportion. The system of
points, which seems so regular
and exact in its progression by
lines, is quite as irregular as
any of the old methods when it
attempts progression by ems or
squares.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
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180
Digitized by LjOOQLC
A Contrast of Systems 181
The irregular progression of bodies made
on the system of points is shown by the
diagram on the right side. The straight
hair-line by the side of this column of em
quadrats does not touch each quadrat
on its corner, as it should. It diverges
at an increasing angle, which proves
an irregular progression of the smaller
bodies.
The hair-line by the side of the col-
umn on the left side of this diagram
touches every em quadrat at its cor-
ner, and proves that each body has
been regularly increased or de-
creased by geometrical rules. In
an ascending scale Bruce's pica
is about 12J per cent. (.122462)
larger than the small-pica. In
a descending scale, small-pica
is but 10J per cent. (.108723)
smaller than the pica. These
factors can be applied to all
i >roximate bodies : 12J per
sent, for the increase, and
10$ per cent, for decrease.
See table on page 148.
m quadrats of
*ruce system
Em quadrats of American
point system
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Vvv \ / vvv 1 -
^Vtf^ = .' V 'b ¥ ' '
The Faces or Styles of Type Old-style Roman
j2J"gjNDER the American system of points
the bodies of type are clearly de-
scribed by numerical names. Faces
and styles have to be described by
a ruder method, with long names
of two, three, or four words. The first word
always describes the body. If no other word
The methods is added, this single word is always
observed in understood as the name of a body
naming faces ^^ roman f ace . pi ca J g pj ca r0 man.
The second word more plainly describes the face
or style, as pica antique or pica gothic. The third
word usually describes its form as to thickness
or thinness: pica antique extended is a thick
type, and pica antique condensed is a thin type.
The fourth word is intended to describe its fash-
ion of ornament, as pica antique condensed out-
line ; but all ornamental types, and indeed many
182
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Classification of Types 183
An types, are named and classified in an unsat-
actory manner. The names given to many of
jm are fanciful and not at all descriptive. When
wle by different founders, the same face may be
>eled by each founder with a different name.
Le antique of the United States is the egyptian
Great Britain j the antiqua of Germany is the
man of England and the United States.
Arbitrary or fanciful names are seldom given
roman types. Every distinctive face or style is
raled by the founder with a number arbitrarily
lected. One type-foundry uses numbers for all
ses, roman or ornamental.
The type-founders of the United States, in their
ice-lists, arrange printing-types in three distinct
tsses. Roman and italic are put in Types grouped
e first class ; plain faces of display in tllree cla88es
pe, like antique, gothic, and clarendon, are in
e second class ; ornamental types of every kind
e in the third class. Greek and orientals, music
d some faces of script, are properly put in an-
ber distinct class ; but types of this fourth class,
ving but a limited sale, seldom appear in the
dinary price-list.
Within the limits prescribed for this volume it
not practicable to illustrate or even enumerate
[ the faces that have been made for the first and
Bond classes. All of them are based on the
man model, which is still accepted as the sim-
est and best for a readable text-type.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
184 The Romcm Face Preferred
Script types are imitations of different style*
of handwriting, but every one of them, even th<
most flourished, was modeled on some fashion o1
roman letter preferred or used by early copyists.
Italic is but a simplified style of disconnected
script. Its capitals differ from roman mostly ii
their inclination.
Black-letter is a degenerate form of roman, ii
which angles are substituted for curves. Its capi-
tals are probably imitations of the hasty flourishes
of an inexpert penman.
Gothic, without serif s, the simplest and rudesl
of all styles, seems an imitation of roman capital*
cut in stone.
Italian is a roman in which the positions of hair-
line and thick stroke have been transposed.
Title, or fat-face, is a broad style of roman with
over-thick body-marks.
Antique is a roman in which the lines of all the
characters are nearly uniform as to thickness, with
square corners and of greatly increased boldness.
Ornamentals of every style, and even the new-
est varieties of eccentric types, show some con-
formity to the roman model.
The roman face is always in most request, for
roman is the character preferred as a text-letter
Roman faces by all English-speaking peoples and
most used a ii the Latin races. Its only serious
rival in general literature is the fractur, or the
popular face of German type; but even in Ger-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Roman Made in Three Series 185
my roman is largely used as the text-letter for
ientific books, and for inscriptions on coins and
sdals. Not one of the many new faces intro-
iced by the type-founders of this century has
er been considered an improvement on or ac-
pted as a substitute for roman.
Every complete font of roman type between and
eluding the most-used sizes of pearl and great-
imer is provided, with three series of Hag three
aracters : capitals, small capitals, and series of
TOr-case or small letters. 1 Small cap- oharactere
lis are not made for the smallest size of bril-
int, nor for the sizes above great-primer. Italic,
though of a distinct face, is always made a part
every large font of roman type, and must be
garded as its inseparable mate, for the italic of
ery approved roman should have been cut to
le with its accompanying roman and to illus-
ate its peculiarity of style.
With italic capitals and italic lower-case added,
ere are five series in every complete font of our
lected text-letter. This is a peculiar- With itall0
f not to be found in any other literary there are
taracter. The older forms of orientals flveeerie8
ive one series only ; the modern forms of Greek,
erman, and Russian have but two. The capitals
! German are too complex to be used alone as
l The phrase small letters is lor uses instead the word minus-
jectionable for its vagueness ; cule, which is exactly descrip-
rer-case is technical and not tive to bibliographers, but not
nerally understood. Dr. Tay- to the ordinary reader.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
186 Derivation of the Boman Face
a display letter for titles or headings. Emphas:
or display in German is made in the text, eithe
by hair-spacing the emphatic words, or by the us
of an entirely different font of thick-faced lette
The poverty of all other alphabets in single c
double series is in marked contrast with the affli
ence of the five correlated series of the roma
alphabet, which enable the writer or printer t
make emphasis, display, or distinction without
change of size or the violation of typographic*
propriety. The judicious alternation of capital
small capitals, italic, and lower-case makes printe
matter readable and rememberable. The greates
merits of the roman letter are its simplicity an
perspicuity : it has no useless or unmeaning line*
One has but to compare it with any other chara<
ter, modern or ancient, to see how much simple
and more readable it is.
Boman capitals, as now made by type-founders
are imitations of the lapidary letters used by th
Derivation Romans. Three characters only hav
of the roman been added: the J, to distinguish i
character from ^ Lfttin J^ ftnd ^ "[J, t O dis
tinguish it from the V. The Wis a gothic ad
dition. The lower-case letters are imitations o
the characters made by early French and Italiai
copyists, which characters are described by Di
Taylor as the Caroline minuscule, in use in Frana
as early as the ninth century. 1
1 " The Alphabet," vol. ii, pp. 164, 181.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Small Capitals and Italic 187
he capital and lower-case letters were first
ie in type in the year 1465 by Sweinheim and
inartz at Subiaco, near Rome, but the form
le by Jenson of Venice in 1471 has ever since
red as the model for all type-founders,
mall capitals and italic were made in type for
lus Manutius of Venice, and first shown by him
lis octavo edition of Virgil, dated Earlie8t U8e of
1. The model selected was the small capitals
idwriting of Petrarch. Following anditaUc
fashion the capital letters used for italic were
inclined: they were made but little larger
n the round letters of the lower-case, and were
arated from the text by a perceptible white
ce. 1 The italic of this Virgil had little incli-
ion, and seems free from kerned letters; but
itures and double letters and different forms
the same letter were made. Aldus and his
s used italic as the text-letter for many books.
Swash letters.
3 printers of Prance seriously altered the italic
ildus; they gave the lower-case letters more in-
tation, and made free use of kerns. Garamond
de the capitals of full height, and filled up the
>s made by the inclination with little flourishes.
3 capitals so altered are known as swash letters.
liis fashion was not peculiar all Italian copyists of that time,
etrarch. It was observed by nor is it yet obsolete in Italy.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
/'
188 Old-style and Modern-face
The roman form of type is subdivided by pri]
ers and founders into the two classes of old-sty
old-style and and modern-face. Many varieties
modem-face each s tyle are made ; in some of th(
the distinctive peculiarities of the style are d
cerned with difficulty. The points of differen
may be seen in the contrasted forms of each 1
ter as shown on the following page. The fac
selected are "Caslon" old-style, from the tyj
foundry of the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan
and the No. 3 modern-face is from the foundry
George Brace's Son & Co.
In the old-style the so-called hair-line is coi
paratively thick and short ; the stem is protract
Differences *° tS reB ^ length before it tapers to t
in line, stem, hair-line. In the modern-face the ha
and effect Une ig gharp ftnd quite long> an< j t
stem is relatively short. Contrast the capital
and the lower-case m in the forms of each sty
In the old-style the serif is short, angular, ai
stubby; in the modern-face the serif is long
lighter, and more gracefully curved or bracket*
The general effect of the old-style is that of ang
larity; smoothness in curves and gracefully tap
ing lines are not attempted. The general effe
of the modern-face is that of roundness, precisic
and symmetry. As a bit of drawing each lett
of a well-made modern-face is exact, and careful
finished in all its details ; but when any letter
seen with its mates in a mass of composed type
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Old-style and Modern-face
189
1 A
a a
NN
n n
1 B
b b
O O
o o
2 C
c c
P P
PP
3D
dd
O.Q
qq
2E
e e
R R
r r
? F
f f
S S
s s
j Gr
gg
TT
t t
iH
hh
UU
u u
[ I
•
1 1
vv
V V
J J
• •
J J
WW
WW
CK
kk
X X
X X
^L
1 1
Y Y
yy
rtM
mm
Z Z
z z
Digitized by VaOOQlC
190 Merits of the Two Styles
its high finish does not seem to be a merit,
letter of modern-cut is really not so distinct
the same letter in the old-style. The old pun
cutter and the modern punch-cutter worked
reach different ends. The old cutter put re
ability first; he would make his types graceful
he could, but he must first of all make them c
tinct and readable in a mass. His object was
aid the reader. The modern punch-cutter thii
it his first duty to make every letter of grace
shape, but his notion of grace is largely mecha
cai: the hair-line must be sharp and tend to
invisibility; the curving stem must dwindle to
hair-line with a faultless taper; the slender se
must be neatly bracketed to the stem. Ev(
curve and angle is painfully correct and preci
but the general effect of types so made, when \
in a mass, is that of the extreme of delicacy, a
of the corresponding weakness of an overwrou§
delicacy. To use a painter's phrase, the work
niggled, or overdone. Without intending to do
the punch-cutter has been more intent on showi
his own really admirable skill than he has been
helping the reader. His letters, undeniably gra
f ul when viewed singly, are not so effective wh
seen in the combinations of a page or a column
1 The superior distinctness of body and thickness of stem, i
the old-style can be proved by place them in a favorable li*
this simple experiment. Select Then, moving away from th<
equally well-printedpages of old- note how much sooner typet
style and modern-cut, of uniform modern-cut become indistinc
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Gashn Style 191
Roman letter has been an object of experiment
ith type-founders for nearly four centuries, but
is impossible to illustrate or even mention one-
tarter of these experiments. Many forms once
>pular have gone out of use, and have been f or-
>tten. It is not at all important that these old
shions should be described. For the purpose
this work, it is enough to illustrate only the
pes that are now made and most used.
It is a misfortune that the illustrations of the
fferent cuts of modern-faces about to be shown
ive to be made in types of comparatively small
ze. Few roman faces of a decided character are
ade on bodies larger than great-primer; more of
tern are on bodies smaller than small-pica. A face
1 double-pica body would show the peculiarities
: its style more clearly than the same face on pica
>dy. In the larger sizes the mannerisms that
reduce a certain general effect are apparent at a
lance; in the smaller sizes they are discerned
Jy by study.
The peculiarities of the Caslon style, as shown on
iges 69 to 77, need little explanation. Note the
reater breadth of the stems of each peculiarities
tter and their protraction before of casion style
tey change to a hair-line or connect with another
«m, as may be plainly seen in the arch of the
1 and n, and the curve of the C, e, and O. The
air-lines are firmer, although shorter than in
lodern-cut ; the serifs at the foot are shorter and
Digitized by VaOOQlC
192 The Modern-face
stronger, but seldom bracketed; the serifs at th
top, as in the 1, Q, p, h, are angled and strongl;
bracketed.
The defects of this style are : too long a beak t<
the f and J ; unnecessary narrowness in the S an<
a, and in some capitals; too great width of th
C, O, and V. But these are trifles. In genera
effect the Caslon is bold, but not black; clear an<
open, but not weak or delicate. There are fe^s
noteworthy faults of lining or fltting-up. It wa
made to be read and to withstand wear. Som
variations in style may be detected in a compari
son of different sizes of this cut, but it is fairl
uniform as to general effect throughout the series
The modern-face is in strong contrast to th
Caslon style. The stems are sometimes relativel;
Peculiarities thicker, but in all curved lines the;
of modem-face q^q shorter. The serifs are mud
longer; in many of the capitals they are strongly
and in all the lower-case but feebly, connecter
with the stems. The hair-lines are sharper, bu
of greater length and greater weakness. Lininj
and fitting-up are admirable; drawing and cut
ting, excellent. It is a remarkably graceful an<
beautiful face of type when entirely new, yet it i
not a good type for reading, for the sharp hair
lines are readily seen only by readers of excellen
eyesight. Nor is it a good form to withstand wear
The force of impression needed to print the thicl
stems soon gaps or crushes the unprotected hair
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Modernized Old-style 193
3s. When the serifs have been thickened and
hair-lines gapped by wear, the beauty of the
it cuts of modern-face soon disappears. _
[*he modernized old-style here shown is an at-
lpt to accommodate the old fashion to newer
ions of symmetry. The objection- Features ot
e features in the letters a, g, W, S, tnemodem-
C have been removed. The body- *»&<»****
rks have been made slightly narrower and the
r-lines a little sharper, but, as some think,
b to their improvement. The protracted stem,
> short hair-line and serif, have been preserved,
e greatest change has been made in shortening
The Old-style of this
modernized form was
first made for Miller &
Richard, Edinburgh,
about the year 1 860.
fodernized old-style on double small-pica body, solid. 1
George Braced Son & Co., New-York.
senders and descenders, and in the consequent
larging of the small or round letters. The
This modernized old-style & Richard by Phemister, then
1 designed and cnt for Miller of Edinburgh, later of Boston.
25
Digitized by VaOOQlC
194 Modernized Old-style
modernized old-style pica seems larger than t
pica of Caslon. It is a broader letter, yet it dc
not have a similar relief of white space betwe
the lines. This feature is most noticeably shoi
in this specimen of double small-pica, which ii
large page is much improved by leading.
The general effect of the smaller sizes of tl
style (which is more fully illustrated on pages
is restful to to 97 of this work) is that of a plei
the eye \ n g an a a restful monotony. It d<
not irritate the eye with sharp contrasts of bri
ling angles and thick and thin lines ; it does r
challenge the reader's attention to a study of
individual characters. For this reason it is p:
ferred by many authors for serious books, and
many publishers as the best form of colorless te:
letter to put around engravings on wood that sh<
strong contrasts of black and white.
Other foundries have made new faces of t
old-style character which show their notions
commendable improvements. Few of these n<
faces are firm or bold ; in nearly all, the angul
features are rounded or softened. Large fa(
with thin body-marks and hair-lines are pref erre
There seems to be a real avoidance of the fir
ness of line which is the best feature of this chi
acter. An old-style so treated is often a gracei
character ; it has, or may have, the contour of t
best old model, but it does not produce the stroi
effect of the true old-style letter.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Franklin Face
195
)ne of the first, if not the first, of the mod-
lized old-styles produced in this country was de-
ned and cut in 1863 by A. C. Phemister, to the
ler of Phelps & Dalton, who called the new let-
the " Franklin face." It is a trifle wider as to
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN was born in Boston,
17th of January, 1706, and died in Philadelphia,
17th of April, 1790. He began his apprentice-
ship as printer in 17 18, and worked as a jour-
neyman in Philadelphia in 1724, and in London
in 1725. He returned to Philadelphia in 1726,
and there began as master printer in 1729. As
editor and publisher he soon made himself a
man of note. He invented the Franklin stove
in 1742 ; he proved the identity of lightning and
electricity in 1752 ; he was made clerk of the
Assembly in 1736; postmaster of Philadelphia
in 1737 ; deputy postmaster-general for the colo-
nies in 1753 ; representative of Pennsylvania be-
fore the council of England in 1757 and again
in 1764 ; delegate to Congress in 1775 ; ambas-
sador to France in 1776 ; commissioner to Eng-
land in 1783; president of Pennsylvania from
1785 to 1787 ; delegate to the constitutional
convention in ij&j.&w®/&®/& / @/&W&W&'& / &'&
Franklin old-style on long-primer body, solid.
Phelps, Dalton & Co.
rm and larger as to face, and consequently more
en and perhaps a little more inviting to the eye
m his first attempt, as shown by Miller & Rich-
I. Some characters have been much improved ;
Digitized by VaOOQlC
196 Large-faced Old-style
they show an evident leaning to the forms tl
are most approved in modern-cut letter.
THURLOW WEED was born in Cairo,
Greene County, New York, 15th November,
1797, and died in New York city 22d No-
vember, 1882. He entered a printing office
when but twelve years of age. In 1815 he
was a journeyman in New York city, work-
ing by the siae of James Harper in trie office
of Paul & Thomas. In 18 19 he established
a weekly newspaper in Norwich, Chenango
County, New York. In 1830 he established
the "Albany Evening Journal," which soon
became a power in politics. He never held
anv public office, yet he exerted a wonderful
influence in the management of men and in
the direction of public affairs. He did good
service to the United States in defending na-
tional interests abroad during the civil war.
Large-faced old-style on long-primer body, solid.
Phelps, Dalton & Co.
To supply a demand for a still larger face, 1
same foundry had cut for it by the same pun<
cutter a large-faced old-style in a full series
book sizes. The specimen here presented is
long-primer body, but it seems quite as large
the small-pica shown upon page 86 of this wo:
This enlargement was made by shortening t
descenders and ascenders, and pushing them
the verge of the body. It will be noted that lo
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Original Old-style
197
>es in adjacent lines often touch and seem to
meet. It is a well-cut and readable letter, but
is neither true old-style nor modern-cut.
rhe Binny face and the Bradford face made by
wKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. are other merito-
us forms of modernized old-style,
ro meet a demand for a " real " old-style, a series
book sizes has been produced, either from re-
rbished old punches, or from new punches in
thf ul imitation of the English or Dutch roman
ter in general use during the first half of the
WILLIAM JANSEN BLAEW, a diftinguifhed
printer of Holland, was born in 1571 and died at
Amfterdam in 1638. He had been taught the
trade of a joiner, at which work he made himfelf
efficient as an afliftant to the aftronomer Tycho
Brahe. After receiving inftru&ion from Brahe,
he went to Amfterdam, and there diftinguifhed
himfelf by the publication of maps and the making
of geographical globes. His frequent vifits to the
printing office taught him fomething about printing,
and led him to eftablifh an office for his own work.
Diflatiffied with the old form of hand-prefs, he re-
constructed it, and made many valuable improve-
ments which were gradually accepted by printers
everywhere. His " Theatrum Mundi," in fourteen
volumes folio, is one of the beft fpecimens of the
printing and engraving of the feventeenth century.
Original old-style on long-primer body, solid.
MacEellar, Smiths & Jordan Co.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
198 Basle, or Earty-Italicvhj Old-style
seventeenth century. It is a lean letter with
small face, and has many characters now regarde
as uncouth. The dt, the long 1 with its train c
doublets, and other obsolete forms are conspic
uous. For the reprints of many English booi
published in the eighteenth century this origin*
old-style is the most appropriate, but its meagr<
ness and quaintness have often prejudiced man
readers against all forms of old-style.
There are authors who are not content with th
moderate rudeness of the " original " old-style, bi:
want an earlier and cruder form. For this tast<
types have been made in imitation of the roma
used by printers in France, Italy, and HoDand dui
ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The Chiswick Press has an old-style which is
reproduction of a bold face once used by printer
The Basie, or °f Basle and by some early Italia:
Eariy-itaiian, printers. It was made about 1887 en
old-style clusively for the books of the Chiswic!
Press, and has been employed by that house a
a choice letter for works of merit. It is a boL
and readable letter. Its most noticeable feature
are an upward slope of the cross-bar in the €
greater' thickness of the stems, avoidance of hail
lines, stubbiness of serifs, obliqueness of the thic)
strokes in rounded letters like O, C, p, q, larg
small-capitals, and an increased width of many o
the large capitals. It is one of the modern old
styles that retains characteristic peculiarities. A
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Basle, or Early-Italian, Old-style 199
this date (1891), it has been made only on a small-
pica body, and has as yet no appropriate italic. 1
C CHARLES WHITTINGHAM, firjl of
the name in the annals of printing, was born in
1767, at Calledon, in the county of Warwick,
England. About 1790 he began bujinejs at
London as a majler printer. In 1 8 1 o he removed
to Chijwick, and there founded the CHISWICK
PRESS, which ever Jince has maintained the
highejt reputation for good book printing. He
died in 1840. His nephew Charles (born in
1795), jucceeded to the bujinejs and to the friend-
Jhip and confidence of the publi/her, Pickering,
for whom he made many admirable books.
After his death in 1876, the bujinejs was con-
tinued by his executors.
The Basle old-style of the Chiswiek Press.
The seventeenth-century style, or, as it is often
called in this country, the Elzevir 2 style, was re-
iThe peculiarities of this
Basle style are more strikingly
presented in some books printed
it Venice at the close of the
if teenth century.
2 The name Elzevir is unwisely
;hosen, for this face is unlike
the Van Dijk face, largely used
by the Elzevir family. Who then
iid make it ? Didot (" Essai sur
la Typographic," p. 699) says
that Garamond and Sanlecque
made types for the Elzevirs. A
recently published book, •* Tipo
Italian o non Elzeviriano," ap-
punti di B. L. Centenari, Rome,
1879, intimates that the Elzevirs
were provided with Italian types.
The author gives us no satisfac-
tory evidence in support of this
intimation, and Willems ridi-
cules it, but it must be admitted
that this so-called Elzevir letter
has features unlike those of any
seventeenth-century face made
in France or Holland.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
200 Elzevir Old-style
LOUIS ELZEVIR was a publisher at Leyden
from 1 583 to 1 6 1 7. His sons Matthew, Louis,
Josse, Gilles, and Bonaventure were also pub-
lishers : Matthew at Leyden, Louis and Gilles
at La Haye, Josse at Utrecht, Bonaventure, who
also was a printer, at Leyden. . . . Abraham
and Isaac, sons of Matthew, were printers and
publishers at Leyden. Jacob, another son, was
a publisher at La Haye. . . . Daniel, ablest of
the family (son of Bonaventure), was printer
and publisher, first at Leyden, and afterward at
Amsterdam, between the years 1652 and 1680.
Seventeenth-century old-style on body 10, solid.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris. 1
vived in 1878 by Gustave Mayeur of Paris, wh
says that he selected for his model the types of
The Elzevir book printed in 1634 by the Elzevirs c
oid-styie Leyden. It is a compressed letter, wit
a large open face, with very short ascenders an
descenders, and thin stems, plainly made to witl
stand wear, for the few hair-lines are of unusui
thickness and all the serifs are short and stubby
1 Mayeur founds this style in have drives from the origin
a complete book series, on all punches, found complete fon
bodies from body 5 to body 14, of this face, with its italic on
including a specially cut and 8- 10- and 12-point bodies. Se
properly mated italic; and in eral American foundries mal
the form of two-line capitals some of these larger sizes wit
only on several bodies between an appropriate lower-case. Thrt
body 10 and body 72. Farmer, lines of a larger size can be see
Little & Co., of New York, who on page 51.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Elzevir Old-style
201
[though fitted with unusual closeness it is a read-
le letter, and popular, not only with publishers
d authors, but with job printers. Its full series
durable two-line letter makes it especially val-
ble for book titles and open display.
Phelps, Dalton & Co. of Boston make a varia-
>n of this face which has the characteristics of
e original in the features of firm hair-lines, close
b, stubby serif, and ability to withstand wear,
th the added feature of greater compression.
SAMUEL NELSON DICKINSON was born in
the town of Phelps, Ontario County, New York,
11th December, 1801. After learning the trade
of a printer in the Palladium office, Geneva,
N. Y., he worked as a compositor in New York
city and Boston. In 1829 he began business as
a master printer. Inability to get the types he
needed led him to type-making, in which he soon
acquired distinction, his styles being preferred by
the printers of New England. He died in Rox-
bury, Mass., on the 16th day of December, 1848.
He was succeeded by Sewall Phelps, a proof-
reader of education, and Michael Dalton, an ex-
pert type-founder. After the death of Phelps
in 1863, and of Dalton in 1879, new members
were admitted, of whom now remain George
J. Pierce, Alexander Phemister, A. C. Converse,
and J. W. Phinney, trading under the firm-name
of Phelps, Dalton & Com^w^w^^^^^^
Elzevir old-style on long-primer body, solid.
No. 19 of Phelps, Dalton & Co.
26
Digitized by VaOOQlC
202 Ronaidson Old-style
The "Ronaidson old-style" was designed a
made in 1884 by the MacKellar, Smiths & Jord
Ronaidson Co. In this face the squared or ang]
old-style shoulder of the m and n, and all otl
peculiarities of old-style, are strongly emphasiz
Note the angled serifs of the lower-case, and t
added angles given to many of the capitals.
JAMES RONALDSON was born in
1 768, at Gorgie, near Edinburgh. In
1794 he went to Philadelphia and there
followed the business of biscuit-baking.
When the bakery was destroyed by
fire, in 1796, he sought a new business,
which he found in a partnership with
Archibald Binny, a practical type-
founder. Ronaidson contributed the
money ; Binny the tools and the prac-
tical knowledge. The partnership,
which lasted for many years, was of
mutual advantage. Ronaidson died in
Philadelphia in 1842. / W&/&/&'&'W&
Ronaidson old-style, on pica body, solid.
MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co.
is a remarkably clean-cut letter j the counters a
deep, and each character has a notable sharpne
and clearness. It is a very popular letter wi
job printers.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
French Old-style
203
The form of modernized old-style most used in
ranee, Belgium, and Italy is rounder, fatter, and
ore open than the popular old-styles of England
America. Usually it is of light face, with firm
id visible hair-lines. Its most pronounced pecu-
irities are the great width of the rounded capi-
Is and an apparently fanciful rearrangement of
ems and hair-lines. The small capitals are often
eak and inconspicuous. Some French founders
ve their small capitals a wider set, so that they
em hair-spaced, but this treatment more plainly
:hibits their meagreness. The quotation marks
FRANCOIS DIDOT, the first of a long
line of French typographers, was born in
Paris in 1689. He served apprenticeship
to Andr£ Pralard, printer and publisher
of that city. In 171 3 he was established
as a master printer, choosing for his sign
and trade-mark the « Golden Bible. » He
soon acquired a good reputation for the
beauty of his typography, of which « l'His-
toire g6n6rale des voyages » in twenty
quarto volumes is an excellent example.
In middle age he was made syndic of the
corporation of booksellers and printers.
He died 2d November, 1759. -«>e**xsK»-
French old-style on body 11, solid.
Fonderie Turlot, Paris.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
204 Portuguese Old-style
are more distinct and of better form than thos
used in the English language.
For dictionaries and catalogues in old-style f ac
that have extended notes or explanations, Frenc
condensed printers prefer a condensed form of ol<
old-style style, with lower-case large and capita
letters exceedingly small, in which the stem is bi
little thicker than the hair-line. The capitals ai
often low of height to allow the addition of a<
cents. This condensed form of letter, known b
the name poetic-face, is still preferred in Franc
for poetry. Its thinness prevents the turning ovc
of long lines.
The Portuguese old-style on page 206 was ci
about 1804 by Joaquim Carneiro Silva, then a
engraver attached to the Typographia Regia d
Lisboa, now known as the Imprensa Nacional d
Lisboa. It has never been used out of this offic<
and is not for sale. Although a distinct old-sty]
character, it betrays, in the mannerisms of som
of the letters, traces of fashions then prevailing
Note the thinness of the E, the crossed bars c
the W, and the greater width of the rounded caj
ital letters. The peculiarities of its cut may l
discerned more plainly in the capitals that f olio*
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OPQRSTUVWXYZ
Digitized by V3OOQLC
French Poetic-face
205
»
^>=
n
K
N°.
XXXIV.
3*
ClCtRO PO&TIQ.UE.
\J N General d'armee recevant
de tomes parts des plaintes contre
un Munitionnaire , le fit venir , &
pour premier compliment le mena-
$a de le fairependre. Monfeigneur ,
repondit froidement le Munition-
naire , on ne pend pas quelqu'un qui
peut difpofer de cent mille ecus ;
& la-deliiis ils paflerent dans le ca-
binet. Un inftant aprfcs , Monfieur
le General *n fortit perfuade que
c'etoit un fort honnete-homme.
Ceci nous apprend qu!on ne doit
1>as juger trop precipitamment de
a conduite du procham , ni le con-
damner fans Tentendre. II eft bien
aife de dire que certaines gens font
des fripons , mais il faut le prouver.
~&
Prom Founder's " Manuel Typographique."
Digitized by VaOOQlC
206 Portuguese Old-style
THOMAS BEWICK, the reviver
of the art of engraving on wood,
was born at Cherryburn, Eng-
land, 1 2th August, 1 753, and died
at Gateshead,8th November, 1 828.
In 1775 he took the first prize for
the best woodcut. In 1790 he
published a "History of Quad-
rupeds" with illustrations drawn
and engraved by his own hand.
In 1797 appeared the "British
Birds," which at once established
his reputation as a great master
in the art of engraving on wood.
Portuguese old-style, on body 14, solid.
From the Imprensa Nacional de Lisboa, by permission oi
the manager. Dr. V. Deslaudes.
When William Morris determined to make a ne
style of roman type, he selected for his model tl
roman type on great-primer body of Nicolas Jei
son. Morris pnt his adaptation on english or 1-
point body, but he made it very much bolder an
blacker. The Golden type, for so Morris name
it, approximates the thickened face known i
Digitized by V3OOQLC
HE Kelm,
scott Press
began work
at Hammer*
smith in Fe^
bruary 189U
The design*
er of the type
W* Morris,
took as his
model Nicholasjenson's Romanies
ter used in Venice in the 15th Cen^
tury, and which unites in the fullest
degree the necessary qualities of pur •
ityof line and legibility* Jenson gives
us the high' water mark of the Roman
character: from his death onwards
typography declined till it reached its
lowest depth in the ugliness of Bos
doni* Since then the English typo^
graphers followingmoreor less in the
footsteps of Caslon, have recovered
much of the lost ground; but as their
work is almost always adapted for
machine printing it nas a tendency
to exaggeration of lightness and thing-
ness, which may well be corrected,
in work printed by the hand^press,
207
Digitized by VaOOQlC
208 Jenson Old-style
America as antique, and in England as egyptia
more closely than it does any style now known 1
the name of roman. It first appeared in 1891,
" The Story of the Glittering Plain." Bibliophil
welcomed the new style as a pleasing return
the simplicity of the early printers, and as a vim
cation of the superior merit of old-fashioned mi
culine printing. Publishers did not entirely a
prove ; they acknowledged its merit, but said th
the Golden type was too black and rude for t
ordinary book. This seems to have been intend*
for Morris made it in one size only, and refused
sell types or matrices, or give the right to repi
duce. Imitations have been made, but they a
seldom used for texts, and mainly for the headin
of newspaper articles, or for lines of display in a
vertisements and pamphlets.
The merit of the Golden type is not in its stur<
medievalism, but in its simplicity and legibilil
and these are features which will be maintained
future imitations, but perhaps not so emphaticall
when our effeminate style of roman shall have be<
discarded. The text of the illustration on pa]
207 was written by William Morris, and compose
in the printing room of the Kelmscott Press
1894. It was kindly sent as a contribution to ft
book.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
VI
Modern Faces of Roman Letter
£ff!^OT one of the styles approved in
England and France at the close of
e last and the beginning of this
ntury is now in favor. The forms
of Jackson, Fry, and Baskerville are
ever imitated. Even in Italy and changes in
'ranee the styles of Bodoni and Didot the fashion
ad but a brief popularity. The recently of type8
svived taste in Paris for the Didot faces is re-
bricted to a few fine books, and promises to be
ut a passing fancy. The only style that lasted
3r many years was the fat-face of Robert Thorne,
bown on the following page.
This is the " fat-faced, preposterous dispropor-
ion " stigmatized by Hansard. Between 1810 and
840 it was a popular style, made in all sizes from
earl to canon. In many printing houses it sup-
lanted the better styles of Caslon, Baskerville, and
ackson. Its passport to favor was the general
27 209
Digitized by VaOOQlC
210 The Fat-face
William Rittenhouse,
a Hollander, establish-
ed a Paper Mill near
Philadelphia, Pa., and
there made Paper for
printing about 1690.
Fat-face on paragon body, leaded.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
belief that it was more readable and more durable
than any of the older styles. This belief was nol
Fault* of confirmed by experience. Togetacleai
the fat-face print from this face required more ink
and more impression, but excess of ink on the small
sizes filled the low counters and strong impression
ruined the fine lines. When it had received bul
one-half the usual amount of wear each charactei
was discerned mainly by its body-marks. It soon
went out of fashion as a book-type, and is used by
job printers now only in the larger sizes. Black-
ness and boldness of stem are not enough to make
a type readable and durable,- width of counter
firmness of hair-line and serif, and proper reliei
of white, are really more important.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Modern Bold-face
211
The face shown on this page is as bold a face of
man as will be found acceptable for a book-text,
is carefully drawn and well cut, is not Limitations
er black, and has fair relief of white °* ooid-face
ace, with many other pleasing features which
mmend it to job printers for catalogues, law
>rk, and documents; but publishers seldom select
:or a standard book. Its strong contrast of long
d sharp hair-lines with thick and black stems
ikes the print dazzling and somewhat irritating
the eye. It is not a restful type j it attracts at-
ition, butproves wearisome when diligently read.
WILLIAM BKADFOKD, the first
printer in New York, was born in
Leicester, England, in 1658, and be-
Sfan business as a master printer in
Philadelphia in 1682. Many disa-
greements with the ruling authorities
compelled him to go to New York,
where, in 1693, he published his first
print. He printed in New York for
3ver fifty years. In 1725 he published
the " New York Gazette." In 1728 he
iad a paper mill in Elizabethtown,
Bf. J. He died at New York in 1752.
Modern bold-face on pica body, solid.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
212 The Scotch-face
ISAIAH THOMAS was born in Boston, 19tl
January, 1749, and died in Worcester, 4th April
1831. At six years of age he was apprenticed t<
Zachariah Fowles, printer, for eleven years. Ii
1770 he began the publication of the " Massachu
setts Spy," which he was soon after obliged to re
move to Worcester for fear of the destruction o
his printing office by the Tories. He soon becami
eminent as a publisher ; the " Farmer's Museum,'
the " Massachusetts Magazine," a folio Bible, an<
most of the hymn books and school books of NeY
England came from his presses. He was the firs
American printer who imported music types, an<
printed a text in Greek. He was the founder of th<
Antiquarian Society of Worcester, and the autho:
of a valuable history of printing in two volumes.
Scotch-face on long-primer body, solid.
Phelps, Dalton & Co.
The plan or design for the peculiar style kno
as the Scotch-face was first originated in 1837
Dickinson's S. N. Dickinson of Boston. Alexan
scotch-face Wilson & Son cut the punches to
order and so made the first " Scotch-face " ty]
Matrices from these punches were imported
the designer, who cast from them in 1839 the f
types made in his new foundry. The illustrat
on this page is a specimen of the types cast fr
these matrices.
As first made the Scotch-face was a small, n<
round letter, with long ascenders, and not not
ably condensed or compressed. A complete sei
Digitized by LjOOQIC
The Scotch-face
213
I the Scotch-face seems to have been shown first
i America by James Conner of New York. Print-
's acknowledged the superior grace of The Conner
is novel style, which gradually sup- scotch-face
anted every other. After thirty years of popu-
rity complaints of it were heard. Newspaper
iblishers said that the first face was too small for
e body ; and the reprinters of cheap books de-
sired the enlarged face to be too round, which pre-
nted the frequent use of it in poetry. These objec-
ts led to the making of a more condensed form.
HORACE GREELEY was born in Amherst,
New Hampshire, 3d February, 1811, and died in
Pleasantville, Westchester County, New York,
29th November, 1872. His earliest training as
a printer began in East Poultney, Vermont, in
1825. In 1831 he went to New York. In 1833
he began as a master printer ; in 1834 he estab-
lished the " New Yorker," in 1840 the "Log
Cabin," and in 1841 the "New York Tribune,"
which, during his long term of editorship, be-
came a journal of unprecedented influence in
politics. He was a clear thinker, and a ready
writer in a style of remarkable strength. A
fearless opponent of slavery he made many ene-
mies, but all hostilities ended with his death. By
general consent he takes a rightful place in the
annals of typography as " our later Franklin."
Scotoh-face on 10-point body, solid.
James Conner's Sons.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
214 The Scotch-face
The peculiarities of the condensed Scotch-fi
may more clearly be seen in this specimen of a e
a condensed cut in 1854 by James Lindsay. N
scotch-face the extension and slenderness of hi
line in the arch of m, n, p, C, a, r ; the length
the serifs, and the general elongation of all 1
characters after the fashion of French types.
JOEL MUNSELL, a publisher and
printer of eminence was born in
Northfield, Mass., 14th April, 1808,
and began as master printer in Al-
bany, New York, about 1827. Mun-
sell was an industrious collector of
books on typography, the author or
the compiler of several books on
paper and printing, the publisher of
books on American history, and a
founder of the Albany Institute. He
died in Albany 15th January, 1880.
A condensed Scotch-face on english body, solid.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
The condensed form of Scotch-face is now <
of fashion, for its long serifs and short hair-lii
and its feminine delicacy of cut are not pleasi
when the letter has received ordinary wear. 1
rounder faces of this style retain their populari
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Condensed French-face
215
FRANgOIS-AMBROISE DIDOT, son of
Francois, was born in Paris, 7th January,
1730, and died 10th July, 1804. He gave
much attention to the improvement of type-
founding and paper-making. His system of
typographic points supplanted that of Four-
nier. At his suggestion, and by his aid, the
paper-maker Johannot first made the papier
velin or calendered paper. His most cele-
brated works are the 4< Dauphin" edition of
the classics, in thirty-two volumes, 4to, and
the ' ' Artois" edition of sixty-four volumes,
18mo, which are highly prized by collectors.
The condensed French-face on body 12, solid.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
This form but not this face of thin letter, which
Fas probably the model for the condensed Scotch-
ace, was introduced to French printers TMn tSMeB
>y Fournier in 1776 as a type " in the preferred
)utch style." Fran<jois-Ambroise Didot inFrance
►referred the rounder forms, but condensed faces
tave always been popular in France. The French
Id-style, the English-face and the Elzevir are
>ften preferred by French publishers for books,
>ut the thin form is still selected for newspapers,
tamphlets, magazines, and all the ordinary forms
>f printing. Modern French taste inclines to a
Digitized by VaOOQlC
216 Compressed-face
greater lightness of stem, but the general form <
the condensed style has not been seriously changes
One variety, having ascenders and descenders <
great length, known as the poetic-face, had a grei
popularity when Lamartine, Hugo, and De Muss<
wrote in verse. The merit of the letter was in ii
delicacy and thinness, which enabled the printer 1
put on a narrow page twelve syllables in one lir
of large-faced type. Although not in fashion t
it has been, it is still used in many French office
The face shown on this page is an America
adaptation of a prevailing French fashion. Tk
lower-case letters are over high, necessarily mal
ALEXANDER ANDERSON, the father of. wood
engraving in America, was born in New York,
21st April, 1775. Although a qualified student
and a licensed practitioner of medicine, he
preferred the art of engraving, beginning his
work when but twelve years of age on bits of *
copper and type-metal. He was entirely self-
taught j but he accepted the blocks of Bewick
as his models of style. For eighty years he
was a diligent worker. He made many blocks
of more than ordinary merit. Lansing, Mor-
gan and Hall were his pupils. He died in
Jersey City, 17th January, 1870.'&&w&&w&&
Compressed-face on long-primer body, leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Influence ofBodoni 217
ng short ascenders, dwarfing the capitals, and en-
arging small capitals. The characters are closely
toted; the serifs of contiguous stems often con-
lect; the stems are thin, and the hair-lines are
leedlessly protracted. Although this style is pre-
erred in France and Spanish America, it is not a
avorite in the United States. Yet it is a remark-
bly readable letter, and were it not for the deli-
acy of its connecting serifs would be durable,
^e lower-case letters are large and clear even in
heir compressed form. To English and Ameri-
an eyes its great defect is the reduced height of
be capital letters. Its grayness of color makes
b a good letter for contrast in texts that have
rood-cut illustrations.
No type-founder has changed the form and effect
f roman letter more than Bodoni of Parma. His
rst specimen of 1771 shows that he New forms
ad carefully studied the best French ofBodoni
ppes of that period, but it shows also the hand of
n innovator. He made his new faces rounder
nd lighter, and of greater openness and delicacy.
Ihe round letters of the lower-case were unusu-
Uy short for the body, with ascenders and de-
eenders so long that the composed types had the
ppearance of leaded matter. Excessive care was
iven to the correct drawing of curves and ovals,
lerifs were long and flat; hair-lines had unusual
3ngth and sharpness. He delighted in little graces
rtiich struck every reader by their novelty. These
28
Digitized by VaOOQlC
218 Eighteenth-century French-face
mannerisms prevented other founders from fait]
fully copying his forms, but all of them have bee
influenced by his style. He set the fashion f<
light-faces and round forms, and for that imitatic
of copperplate effects which has so seriously dai
aged the appearance of the books of this centur
Firmin-Didot of Paris, equally able as print
and type-founder, undertook the difficult task <
FIRMIN-DIDOT, the second son of
Ambroise, and brother to Pierre,
was born in Paris, 14th April, 1764,
and died 24th April, i836. He was an
expert type-founder, and a skilled
printer. The neat types of several
of his father's editions were cut by
his hand. He did good work for
the development of stereotyping and
map-making. He was appointed
printer to the King and to the French
Institute, and was decorated with
the medal of the Legion of Honor.
His portrait is in the gallery of the
Louvre, and his bust is in the hall of
the National Printing Office, Paris.
Eighteenth-century French-face on body 12, solid.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Engraver's Hair-line-face
219
aaking a bolder type with the round form, sharp
Lnes, and true curves of Bodoni. His first face
ras an obese letter of harsh contrasts, for it op-
>osed thick stems to feeble hair-lines and fragile
erifs. After being out of fashion for sixty years,
his Didot style was revived by Mayeur, who has
aithfully reproduced its general effect. Other re-
productions of the different styles proposed by
)idot are made by several founders of Paris.
JOSEPH ALEXANDER ADAMS, engraver on
wood, was born at New G-ermantown ; New Jersey,
in 1803. He died about 1870. In his boyhood
he was taught the trade of a printer in which he
excelled ; but he preferred and followed the busi-
ness of engraving on wood. About 1840 he ar-
ranged with Harper & Brothers for publication by
that firm of an edition of the Bible, he to furnish
the engravings and control the printing. On this
work he developed the method of overlaying and
making-ready woodcuts that now prevails in the
United States. For this work he invented the pro-
cess of electrotyping woodcuts. Four- and six-roller
Adams presses were first made at his suggestion.
Engraver's hair-line on long-primer body, solid.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
The engraver's hair-line was often used in books
bout fifty years ago for quoted mottos in titles,
[)r summaries of chapters, and for sub-headings in
ooks and pamphlets intended to show a feminine
legance or refinement. Although a well-drawn
Digitized by VaOOQlC
220 Round-faces
and carefully cut letter, it has been supplanted \
other forms of light-face much inferior in merit
Condensed forms of letter have always foui
most favor with publishers of small-margined ai
Decline of double-columned octavos, with the r
thin and eon- printers of standard books in shabl
densed faces f orms? an( j ^^ inexperienced new
paper proprietors who mistakenly attempt
crowd too much matter into a given space. The
judgment has been overruled. Intelligent boo
buyers resent this parsimony in type and margi
and call for the round and open faces which ai
now regarded as the more suitable for books <
merit. The illustrations on these facing pag<
GEORGE CLYMER, inventor and
manufacturer of the once celebrated
Columbian printing press, was born in
Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in the
year 1754. Clymer at a very early age
had earned good repute as a scientific
and skilful mechanic. In 1817 he in-
troduced his Columbian press in Eng-
land, where it was highly commended.
He died in London in 1834.
Round-face on pica body, leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Bound-faces
221
HORACE WELLS, the pioneer of type-
founding in Cincinnati, was born at Hart-
ford in 1797, and at the age of sixteen was
apprenticed to a cabinet-maker. In 1820
he was selected to superintend the wood-
working department of the foundry estab-
lished in Cincinnati by Elihu White, and
now known as the Cincinnati Type Foundry,
the first types in which were cast July 4 of
that year. In this foundry he gradually ac-
quired a practical knowledge of the details
of type-making, and also attained some dis-
tinction as a punch-cutter. He became the
general manager, and ultimately the pro-
prietor, of the foundry. He died in 1851.
Round-face on long-primer body, leaded.
Parmer, Little & Co.
re fair exhibits of a prevailing fancy for round-
ices. When new, carefully printed and judi-
iously used, the round-faces produce Round-faces
pleasing effect, but many of them of **&* Une8
re too frail for general use. Sharp and thin lines
re not in so much favor as they were thirty years
go. The round-faces with sharp lines are effec-
ve only when printed in the form of leaded or
ouble-leaded composition with broad white mar-
ins. When set solid and printed on ordinary
aper with narrow margins they are unpleasing.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
222 Light-faces
The illustration on this page is of an extreme
light face of decided merit, but which is too th
a skeleton and too light to be used as a text-ty]
round-face f or descriptive matter set solid,
shows to best advantage in leaded or doubl
leaded poetry, or in any work which has brot
margins and large spaces of white. It finds fr
quent employment in the titles or descriptioi
of plates when these titles are printed, as is tl
fashion, on thin paper facing the plate, but in ai
place it is a strain on ordinary eyesight.
ELIHU WHITE, who established the type-
foundry now known as that of Farmer, Little
& Co., was born at Bolton, Connecticut, 27th
July, 1773. His first business was that of a
bookseller and publisher. In association with
a Mr. Wing he undertook to make type, with-
out any knowledge whatever of the theory or
practice of the art In 1810 he took his un-
developed type-making tools to New York,
and soon after began a prosperous business.
With William M. Johnson of Hempstead, he
gave much time to the development of a type-
casting machine. He established foundries in
Buffalo and Cincinnati. He died in 1836.
Light-face on small-pica body, leaded.
Farmer, Little & Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Broad Form of Light-face
223
KICHARD MAKCH HOE was born in
New York, 12th. September, 1812, and
died in Florence, Italy, 7ttL June, 1886.
At the age of fifteen lie began to work
in his father's printing-press manufac-
tory ; at twenty-one he was the bead of
the business. He made many improve-
ments in printing machinery. His
first notable invention was the Type-
revolving Rotary -printing machine,
patented in 1847. His latest achieve-
ment was the Web-perfecting printing
machine, which prints from an endless
roll, cuts, folds, and delivers perfect pa-
pers at rates of speed, varying with the
size of the sheet, from fifteen to sixty
thousand copies an bour. js£z_jx£z_s£z_s£zjx£zl
froad form of light-face on brevier body, double leaded.
Parmer, Little & Co.
The face on this page, which is as broad as it
light, is seldom used as a text-letter for stan-
ird books. Its delicacy disqualifies it Broad form
r general use, but it is an effective of light-face
bter in fine pamphlets, catalogues, and orna-
ental job-work, when the composed lines have
*n liberally widened with leads. The larger
Bes are used for book titles, running head lines,
id as a display letter.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
224 French Light-face
The prevailing fashion of light-face in Frai
is entirely distinct from any used in Great Brifo
or America. French type-founders of the pres<
time lean to English forms, but that they hi
not freed themselves entirely from the mann
isms of the old French masters may be seen
the square, trim, and compact appearance of 1
specimen subjoined. Note that the y, S, a, an<
seem to be entirely new forms.
AMBROISE FIRMIN-DIDOT, the son of
Firmin, and a great-grandson of the foun-
der of the house, was born at Paris, 20th
December, 1790, and died 22d February,
1876. He was eminent as a printer and
as the publisher of famous books ; was a
punch-cutter and type-founder, the presi-
dent of several typographical societies,
printer to the Institute, a diligent and in-
telligent collector of books, a member of
the Municipal Council of Paris, repeatedly
juror at Universal Expositions, officer of
the Legion of Honor, author and translator
of many books and pamphlets of authority,
and beyond question the most learned
and ablest typographer of France.
Modern French light-face on body 10, leaded.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
Broad-faces
225
Publishers of newspapers have had unsatisf ac-
>ry experience with every variety of condensed
ice. They testify, as do all book print- ^y broad
•s, that condensed types wear out too faces were
>on, and show their wear when but half ^troduced
orn in muddy presswork and indistinct figures
id characters. Fair trial has thoroughly dem-
istrated that the saving of space made by the
election of a lean letter is not a sufficient offset
> bad presswork and needless wear. Publishers
aw go to the other extreme, and require faces of
rmsual breadth, which American type-foundries
irnish in great variety. The specimen here shown
a fair example of a recent style.
GEORGE P. GORDON, printer and inven-
tor, was born in Salem, New Hampshire,
21st April, 1810, and died in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
27th January, 1878. The needs of his busi-
ness, as a master-printer of New York city,
induced him to make improvements on the
inefficient small printing machines then in
general use. In August, 1851, he patented
the first form of the machine now known
as the Gordon Press, which ever since has
been approved of in this country, and under
other names in Europe. He was granted
more than fifty patents for improvements
in planting machinery.
A broad-face on 10-point body, solid.
James Conner's Sons.
29
Digitized by VaOOQlC
226 Broad-faces
Many broad-faces have short descenders a
long serifs to fill the gaps made by widely se]
Faults of rated stems. In some of them the <
broad-face pansion of the letter is so great tl
there is no fair relief of white space between 1
lines. The impression required for all over-brc
faces, with shortened ascenders and without d
relief of white between lines, must be nearly
severe as that given to the old fat-faces. Bo
printers and publishers have always objected
over-broad faces as mechanically incorrect. T
wide separation of stems required by this sty
makes more difficult the proper fitting of bodies
JAMES H AEPEE, the founder of the print-
ing and publishing firm now known as that
of Harper & Brothers, was born in New-
town, Long Island, N. Y., 13th April, 1795,
and died in the city of New York, 27th
March, 1869. For many years the business
was managed by James and his three broth-
ers : John, who was born 22d January, 1797,
and died 22d April, 1875 ; Joseph Wesley,
who was born 25th December, 1801, and died
14th February, 1870 ; Fletcher, who was
born 31st January, 1806, and died 29th May,
1877. James Harper was elected mayor of
the city of New York in 1844. The business
is now managed by their sons and grandsons.
Broad-face on 10-point body, solid.
MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Expanded-face
227
ISAAC ADAMS, inventor of the
Adams power printing press,
was born in Rochester, New
Hampshire, in 1803, and died
in Sandwich, New Hampshire,
19th July, 1883. His first press,
with frame of wood, was made
in 1828. It received many im-
provements in 1834, and was
even then accepted as the best
press for book printing. About
1836 he formed a partnership
with his brother Seth (born in
1807, died in 1873) for the man-
ufacture of the presses, which
partnership ended in 1856. * 4» 4»
Expanded-face on brevier body, double leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Although very broad or expanded faces are un-
ceptable to publishers of books, they are really
jeded in any form of composition in which it
ems necessary to fill the space as to width more
an as to height. They give a clearness to print
bich is not to be had by the use of capitals or
any other form of letter, and they are entirely
ee from the appearance of bold or vulgar dis-
ay. Job printers use them to good advantage
circulars, catalogues, and fine pamphlets.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
228 Riverside-face
Some publishers and many printers have ti
of light-faces. Book critics have rightfully c<
weak types plained of a deficiency in blackness
make weak ink in recent books. In much of 1
presswork bj ec tionable presswork the fault is <
more to weak types than to weak ink. Under
conditions that control ordinary presswork il
not possible to show vivid blackness on thin li
that will not hold the needed ink. Surrounded
an excess of white the thin lines must seem c<
paratively gray. Printers have also objected
types with sharp hair-lines that are soon flawec
crushed. The desire of the proprietor of the Rii
side Press for a bolder-faced type which would
ceive a proper amount of black, and yield a i
HENRY O. HOUGHTON, printer and publishei
was born in Sutton, Vermont, 30th April, 1823
He was taught printing in Burlington, but devote<
his spare hours to study. In 1846 he graduate
from the University of Vermont. After service a
a reporter on a Boston newspaper he established, i
1852, the " Riverside Press " at Cambridge, Mass*
chusetts, under the name of Henry O. Houghton i
Co. In 1872 he was elected mayor of Cambridge
In 1878 he acquired the ownership of the busines
of the old publishing house of Ticknor & Fields
The business is now carried on under the name o
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York.
Riverside-face on long-primer body, solid.
Phelps, Dalton & Co.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Firm-face of Broad Form
229
easure of wear, led to the cutting of this River-
de-face. His request for a complete series was
ifused by one type-foundry for the rea- The River-
m that it could not be sold. Another ^de-face
nmder cut a full series for book-work which has
&n used with best results. In this series the
-ems of the letters are not only thicker but longer,
id the hair-line has a visible thickness.
These good features are shown more clearly in
new variety of firm-face of broad form, which is
^signed for hard usage on newspaper work. The
ur-lines are unusually thick, the serifs are short,
id will successfully resist the wear of the mould-
ig-brush, the lye-brush, and the proof -planer. It
ill take ink readily, and make a readable print
ithout undue impression.
THOMAS MACKELLAR was born in the city of
New York, 12th August, 1812. and was taught the
trade of a Printer in the printing house of J. & J.
Harper. In 1833 he was proof-reader in the type
and stereotype foundry of Johnson & Smith of
Philadelphia. When Johnson retired, he became
the senior partner in the new firm of MacKellar,
Smiths & Jordan. He is the author of the "Amer-
ican Printer," and for many years was the editor
of the "Typographic Advertiser," and the witty
and wise ^Specimen Book" of the MacKellar,
Smiths & Jordan Co. Selections from his contri-
butions to journals were published in Philadelphia.
1873, under the title of "Rhymes Atween Times."
Firm-face of broad form on 8-point body, solid.
MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
230 Why Small Types are Indistinct
Students and book and newspaper printers
fully agreed as to the worthlessness of the shj
hair-line. Punch-cutters and job printers who
to compete with lithographers and copperph
engravers seem to be the only typographers v
care to perpetuate this feminine feature wh
has so seriously degraded modern printing,
make a readable type the sharp contrast betw<
thin and thick lines should be avoided ; the hi
line should have a visible thickness even in sn
sizes, for this increased thickness is really nee<
as much to give legibility as to prevent wc
The continued popularity of the old-style is <
more to the clearness produced by its strong li:
and serifs than to its quaintness of form.
The defects of the ordinary faces of roman fr
are most noticeable in the smaller sizes. Te
Light lines * n P ear l or diamond are hard to pri
cause weak Too much ink makes the letters th
presswork ftnd muddy . too Utfle ink makeg th
gray and indistinct. Even when inked with <
cretion, the effect of presswork from small ty]
is that of feebleness. Small types show little
the stem and still less of the serif and hair-lii
they have not surface enough to carry a gc
body of ink. To remedy this fault, Quantin
Paris had made for his miniature editions l a
modeled light-face antique, in which all the lii
were nearly of uniform thickness.
1 " Horace : odes et epodes," 24mo, illuminated. Paris, 188
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Motteroz-face 231
The introduction of the Riverside-face of the
Bite Henry O. Houghton, the Cushing style, the
Golden type " of William Morris, the Jenson face
f Phinney, and the Century face of the De Vinne
> ress, are the practical protests of experienced
printers against the growing effeminacy of modern
ypes. Readers of failing eyesight rightfully ask
or types that are plain and unequivocal, that re-
real the entire character at a glance, and are not
liscerned with difficulty by body-marks joined to
lair-lines and serifs that are but half seen or not
jeen at all. The Morris and Jenson styles may be
leedlessly bold for readers of excellent eyesight,
)ut they are attempts at an improvement in the
ight direction, which will be maintained.
The Motteroz-face on the next page is another
ittempt at a letter that may be read more easily,
[t has too many French peculiarities to commend
t to readers who have been used to English mod-
els, but every reader must admit the propriety of
$ome of its innovations. It is not too bold or
)lack, and is notably round and clear. Characters
ike s, a, r, g, which always have been pinched,
n deference to type-founding traditions, are here
nade of full breadth, and are recognized with
sase. The high strong arch of the m and n, and
)ther features of the old-style, have been retained.
Here its designer's reforms have stopped. He has
not thickened the hair-line, which is as sharp as
before, nor has he angled or bracketed the serif.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
232 Motteroz-face
Although the type-founders and printers of Fran<
object to its departures from the accepted stai
dards of form, it has been chosen by the Municip
Council of Paris as the most readable letter for i
school-books and official publications. It is mac
for and used by Motteroz only, and is not for sal
CLAUDE MOTTEROZ was born in
1830,atRoman6che(Sadne-et-Loire).
As the descendant of an old family of
printers he was taught printing, to
which he added the practice of other
crafts. In 1874 he established in Paris
a large atelier for photographic repro-
ductions by lithography, about which
he has written two treatises deemed
of high authority. In 1876 he devised
this form of roman letter. He is the
Crinter and publisher of many school-
ooks whicn have been adopted by
the Municipal Council of Paris. As
proprietor of large printing-houses,
and as a contributor to "rimprim-
erie" for many years, he has exercised
a marked in f 1 uence upon the develop-
ment of French typography. sto^z&.
The Motteroz-face, on corps 11 (a large small-pica), solid.
By permission of M. Motteroz.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Peculiarities of the Motteroz-face 233
The accompanying illustration is intended to
bow the different methods pursued by Didot and
y Motteroz. In the Di-
ot style note the greater
jngth and sharpness of
fie hair-line, the short-
ess of the serif, the stiff
prightness of the stems,
specially in the interior
f the O. In the Motteroz
tyle note the strength of
he arch in n and U, the
omparative shortness of
tair-line and the greater decision given to the O.
A. Motteroz claims that this face on body 5 is
nore readable than the ordinary faces on body 6.
nno
As made by Didot.
uno
As made by Motteroz.
Tous ces grotesques mols, Gaillarde, Trimegiste,
Gros-texte, Gros-canon, fastidieuse lisle
De vains noms qu'ont portes tant de types divers,
Et dont le seul recit attristerait mes vers,
Noms qui de leur grosseur et de leur difference
N'ont pu donner encore aucune connaissance,
11 sut les transformer en d'autres plus heureux
Qui marquent clairement tant de rapports entre eux.
Son nouveau typometre offre une regie sQre:
Chaque type s'accrolt par egale mesure,
Et la gradation qu'avec art il suivit
Est aussi juste a 1'oeil qu'elle est claire a 1'esprit.
Pierre Didot. "Epftre sur les prog res de rimprimerie.'
Motteroz-face on body 5, leaded.
By permission of M. Motteroz.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
234 Novel Forms Unacceptable
The specimens of roraan face here shown ai
necessarily incomplete, for it is not practical)
in this work to illustrate all the styles made he]
and abroad. Every large type-foundry makes i
least three, and sometimes twelve distinct faces <
roman letter on the bodies most in use. Althoug
distinct, the variations in many of these faces a
too slight to be perceived by the inexpert. Tl
illustrations previously presented are sufficient
show the styles that have most character. Th<
show also the drift of popular taste, and the lin
on which efforts at improvement are being mad
New styles are not always the outcome of c
price; often they are made to avoid difficulty
When book printing had to be doi
New styles ,. . ° , - ^
designed to on cylinders the long ascenders of B
conform to doni were abandoned, for they cou
new methods not p r0 p er iy res i s t the f orce applie
When stereotyping had to be done by the papie
mach6 process, which requires the beating of typ
with a stiff brush, the long and sharp serif w
supplanted by one that was short or stubby. Tl
straightened beaks and fewer kerns of moder
faces are so made to insure their proper moul
ing in wax or plaster. The thicker hair-line, tl
bracketed serif, the more open form and deep
counter of some modern styles are necessary f
a greater durability and legibility.
It is remarkable that the general form of tl
roman letter has changed so little. There is co
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Defects of some Characters 235
tinual demand for novelty in letters which type-
founders find difficult to meet. Some of the pro-
posed novelties vary but little from A11 important
the regular models ; some have the au- changes are
thority of Bodoni or of Didot; some <*Je°tionabie
are clever imitations of the styles of medieval cal-
ligraphers of eminent ability, but every attempt
at ornamenting roman letter is invariably rejected
by authors and experienced printers. For any
serious innovation high authority is disregarded ;
a marked variation of form is enough to forbid
its use in books. However meritorious the new
form may be, it can be used only by job printers.
The twenty-six letters of the roman alphabet
imperfectly represent the vocal sounds of any lan-
guage, but every attempt to increase the number
of characters has failed. Authors of dictionaries,
who best understand the difficulties of the sub-
ject, are content when they add accents or dia-
critical marks to the letters. It is not probable
that new characters will be introduced. Phono-
type utilizes all the old letters and adds several
new characters, but there are no indications that
its new alphabet will supersede the old.
Some of the characters now provided may be
abandoned. The beak given to the f compels the
making of five distinct characters, fi,fl, ff,ffi,ffl,
to avoid kerns. Some founders are now cutting
the f without a kern, and this improvement should
make all the doublets unnecessary.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
236 Defects in Small Capitals
Small capitals are often unsatisfactory. Accor<
ing to the rules laid down for emphasis or displa
weakness a wor & * n small capitals should be mo]
of small prominent than one in italic; but sms
capitals capitals are usually made thin and wea
so that really they are of inferior prominenc
Some publishers prohibit all small capitals in tl
text, preferring to make any distinction they ne<
by using the lighter faces of antique or clarendo
This weakness comes from cutting small capita
of the same height as the round letters of a sme
lower-case. In this restricted space it is not pc
sible to cut small capitals of becoming prominent
without widening the letters to a degree whi<
makes them bad mates for the large capitals. Tl
only remedy is to make them higher. As usual
made, small capitals are difficult to cut, as well \
ineffective in print. This difficulty tempts fou
ders to make one set of small capitals serve f<
two or more distinct faces. An inexpert can s«
dom detect the mismating. Properly made, aft
the fashion of the small capitals now provided f <
some faces of ornamental letter, a higher small ca
ital of roman would be much more freely us(
in book-work. The difference between the sma]
capital and the lower-case O, S, W is slight, and
be detected only when the two forms are put :
contrast. To prevent a mixing of the two sort
a special nick ploughed in the body of the sm«
capital would be an important improvement.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Fashions in Arabic Figures 237
Arabic figures have been changed more than
any other characters of the font. Some of the
forms made by the early printers cannot paging
be deciphered by an unschooled reader, in arable
Their oriental irregularities were gradu- flgures
ally reduced to a reasonable degree of uniformity,
so that the old-style figures made by all founders
of the eighteenth century differed but little as
to form, and were never misleading or uncertain.
Each figure had a distinct form and definite posi-
tion : the 1,2, and O were the short characters,
occupying the middle of the line; the 6 and 8
were ascending, and the 3> 4-> 5> 7> an ^ 9 ^ e "
scending characters. In a text of lower-case, or
in a large table of figures, one figure could rarely
be mistaken for another, even when the figures
were worn and bruised. That irregularity of form
which makes figures distinct in a text of lower-
case is a positive defect when they are put in a
mass of even-lined roman capitals. In this posi-
tion the old-style 1, 2, aod are too small : they
look like wrong fonts. Perception of this defect
prompted the designers of modern-cut letter to
make all figures of the same height, and put them
in line. This innovation has been accepted as an
improvement which will probably endure.
To facilitate the composition of tables, figures
have been cast on the n-set, which is wide enough
for all the regular characters in texts of lower-
case, in brevier and larger bodies. For the frac-
Digitized by VaOOQlC
238 Bad Forms of Figures
tians, which are proper adjuncts of the reguh
figures, this n-set is too narrow. When hurried]
Faults of printed as newspapers must be, on wea
figures of paper with weak ink, the fractions, ar
small size some ti me s the figures, of an importai
table are often choked with ink and made indi
tinct. Pounders were gradually induced to mal
the fractions of small bodies on the m-set. Th
was but a partial improvement, for the figures we]
still too narrow. The difficulty was not overcon
until the figures were put on the wider set of ta
thick spaces or two-thirds of an em. Some fou:
ders make them on the body of three-fifths or tw
fifths of an em. These broad figures are us<
chiefly by newspapers, and to some extent by bo(
printers when figures are required in lines of ca
itals. A broad figure is needed for capitals i
much as a narrow figure for lower-case.
Many attempts have been made to improve tl
form of modern figures. The forms of Didot he:
Figures of shown, I 284^67890, a
bad form probably the most striking innovatio
but they have not been accepted. A far more di
agreeable form has been made popular in Franc
Belgium, and Holland. Here is a
figure 3 and a figure 5. The figure
3 has an oblique hair-line ; the fig-
gure 5 has a straight hair-line. There
is no other line of difference. When these hai
lines are attached to fat-face figures, the hair-lin
55
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Signs Quotation Marks Points 239
ire practically invisible at a short distance, and a
ionfounding 1 of the 3 with the 5 is unavoidable.
The signs of £ for pounds and of $ for dollars
ire usually made on an irregular set, which com-
pels unnecessary work in the justification of nar-
row columns of figures. This needless labor could
)e avoided by putting them upon the n-set or the
;et of three-fourths of an em.
The characters required to indicate a quotation
reversed commas at the beginning, and apostro-
)hes at the close) are clumsy. When Q UOtati0 n
he commas are on the four-to-em set, marks are
md the apostrophes on the five-to-em ^p 168 * 1 **
;et, this inequality makes them bad mates. Used
lingly they are too weak ; used in pairs they pro-
luce offensive gaps of white space. The French
nethod of using a distinct reversible sign for quo-
tations, which is put in the middle of the face, is
referable in every way. 2
Italic "points of punctuation are objected to by
hose who maintain that letters only should be in
talic, and that points should not be inclined. To
ise upright roman points only makes unsightly
*rork. There is a real need for inclined points,
although they are too often used unwisely.
1 These figures are often used logue. There is no excuse for
o specify paintings in foreign these figures. Printers should
icture-galleries, to the annoy- join with founders in expelling
nee of visitors, who frequently them from typography,
re led by them to seek a wrong 2 See these signs of quotation
eference in the printed cata- in the French type on page 203.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
240 Types should be in Series
As usually made, some of the minor signs
the font could be improved: the # is too wea
weakness and s0 are the *> $> $• These signs ha
of the minor partially been supplanted by superi
characters fl gures an< j letters, but they would
more freely used if they were stronger. The
and [ provided for bold-faced types are usual
feeble. On the contrary, the braces, dashes, ai
leaders are sometimes too thick and bold, mu
inferior to the neater forms of the French fou
ders. Superior figures or letters are often too lig
and of too small size. The diphthongs 8B and
are not needed for words purely English, but th(
occurrence in Latin compels founders to provi
them for the five series of a complete font. The
diphthongs, M } CE, M, <E, 8B, 06, JE, CE, (B,
find so little employment that usually they are
good as new when the rest of the font is worn oi
The long f, with its doublets, and other abbrevi
tions or logotypes of the early printers, have be
abandoned, but the diphthongs seem to be firm
embedded in the modern alphabet.
A series of book-faces should embrace sizes frc
pica to pearl inclusive; a series of newspaper-fac<
a fun series a ^ s ^ es fr° m bourgeois to agate i
of book- and elusive. Not all the faces here sho^
news-faces ftg S p ec i mens are ma de in complete i
ries for book-work, but those that are most us
have bodies enough for an ordinary book-tex
It is possible now to set text, preface, extrac
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Scant Variety of Large Sizes 241
™ notes, and index in different sizes of the same
^ face. Sixty years ago a complete series of
. - any face of modern-cut (the fat-face excepted)
JVl was rare. The printer of that period was
M often compelled to use two or more unlike
faces on the same page ; sometimes four or
Mmore in the same volume, always with dis-
agreeable effect. 1
Type-founders of the present time usu-
Mally stop a new series of book sizes with
the body of pica, alleging that ^^ of
there is very little demand for romans of
the larger sizes. This is true, large8ize
but the deficient demand is largely due
to the unsatisfactory supply. One can
buy in series (but not so complete as is
M needed) the Caslon or Elzevir old-styles,
but these quaint forms can be used with
propriety in but a limited amount of
printing. There are one or two series
of light-faces not so complete which
are adapted for ornamental typog-
raphy only, as their long serifs and
faint hair-lines unfit them for every-
day practical work. Beyond these
l "The book-printing of the present day is
disgraced by a mixture of fat, lean, and het-
erogeneous types, which to the eye of taste
is truly disgusting; and it may perhaps be
said with truth that a much greater improve-
ment has taken place in the printing of hand-
bills than of books." Hansard, p. 355.
M
Digitized by V3OOQLC
242 More Sizes Needed for Titles
M is practically nothing, for the stiff forms
iyyr Dr. Fry and his imitators, which still keep
place in too many specimen books, are prt
V/f tically obsolete. This scant supply of lar
sizes seems surprising when one notes t
TV>f" profusion of blacks, scripts, and ornament*
on large bodies in the specimen books of
M established type-foundries. The excess
display letter shows that job printers b
more than book printers, and that th
IV /t wants are more cared for.
ItA The inadequate provision of large sis
Mof roman capitals is most noticeable
the composition of book titles, for whi
capitals only are needed. Book titles,
ways difficult to compose in good for
Mcall for many sizes and for a clos<
graded series of uniform face. T]
close grading with strict uniformity
rare in a series of modern-cut tv
Mline letters. As a rule the two-li
types provided for books are cap
ciously selected by founder and
printer, with insufficient attenti
to their possible disagreement
Mf ace. Some are a trifle fat, oth<
a trifle lean ; some have thick a
others thin stems; some have i
and long and others short a
bracketed serifs. That series
Caslon.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Why Titles are Unsatisfactory 243
M rated as complete which embraces all the reg-
jj ular bodies from two-line diamond to two-line
great-primer, but every compositor of titles
-*"• soon finds that these are not enough. He
J£ needs intermediate sizes that are not made
by any type-founder; he needs capitals that
M are smaller, and two-lines that are larger
lur than any in the series. As substitutes for
•"• the deficient faces he has to resort to the
\T capitals and small capitals of ordinary text-
types, to two-lines of other series, to con-
densed faces, to italic capitals, and black-
letter. A title composed of incongruous
faces is always unpleasing. The author
is usually quick to notice discord, but he
has not the technical knowledge needed
to enable him to detect its true cause.
He imputes the discord, not always right-
fully, to the bad taste of the compositor,
when of tener it should be imputed to the
scant supply of sizes and the incon-
gruity of faces. Some publishers have
been so annoyed by the wide gaps be-
tween existing sizes of two-line let-
ters, and the incongruity of any
M substituted face, that they have
ordered special lines, and some-
times the entire title, to be en-
graved, too frequently, it must be
admitted, without improvement.
A modern-cut.
M
M
M
M
M
Digitized by VaOOQlC
244 Irregular Width of Two-lines
Others have ordered a title for a text in mode
cut to be set either in Elzevir or Caslon old-st;
which appear to be the only available styles t
have a passably complete gradipg of sizes. 1
impropriety of a title in old-style before a texl
modern-cut is foreseen and deplored, but it see
a fault not so offensive as the mixing of unrela
two-lines on the same page. 1
For book titles, and also for the initial letters
chapters, two-line capital letters are needed, wh
Two-line types should be graded in height and
irregular and width SO as to show a slight but 1
badly graded u j ar i ncrease { n advancing sizes, i
this increase should be graded as nicely in wi
as in height. The preceding illustrations si
the range of any ordinary series. Their grad
as to height — two points between smaller i
four or more points between larger sizes — se(
close enough; but their grading as to widtl
far more irregular, as will be seen by comj
ing the measurements (in points) of the differ
sizes in that direction. For many displayed li
1 The unconventional book led to the adoption of the r
titles of Pickering and Hough- old practice. Many recent b
ton are sometimes a surprise to from European presses 1
printers, who have frequently the larger lines of displa
hazarded the assertion that these their titles set in light-f
departures from the established antique, celtic, or runic. T
usage are servile imitations of faces are not preferred by
sixteenth-century fashions. Im- publisher ; they are accc
itation was not the motive: it only because roman capita
was the inability to find types a proper size and Amine*
suitable in face and body that hair-line could not be proci
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Insufficient Provision of Two-lines 245
n titles the smaller of two proximate sizes is too
ittle and the larger is too big. To space out a
MMMmm
MMMMmmm
Modernized old-style capitals and two-lines.
ihort line entirely changes the appearance of the
iharacter, and breaks the intended harmony of
jomposition ; to select the size that is needed from
mother series is a disagreeable alternative, for the
ype so selected must be of an incongruous face.
Hie illustrations here given in five distinct series
)f capitals and two-line letters, from four f oun-
Iries, show plainly the uneven grading of the sizes.
The two-line letters that are now provided are
rery frequently false to name. They line only
rith a few sizes of solid type, and seldom line
MMmmmm
MMmm
A series of two-lines and capitals of light-face.
it all with leaded type. A strict two-line should
ine not only with the top of the upper line but
rith the bottom of the lower line. 1 There is a
l See page 59.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
246 New Widths Desirable
real need for two-lines on the bodies of 26-, 30-, 3
38-, 42-, and 46-point j and the faces cut for tin
bodies should be true intermediates, in width
well as in height, of their proximate faces. 1
new sizes are required to complete the deficienc
now existing in the series of Elzevir, Caslon, a
modernized old-style provided by American ty]
founders. For the still more incomplete series
light-face, Scotch-face, and bold-face, many m<
sizes and bodies are desirable.
Nor should this improvement stop with add
faces and bodies of two-line letters of the stands
Three widths w ^th. A full series of lean-f aces a
of roman cap- of fat-faces, to line and mate with 1
itais needed sta ndard-f aces, should be provided i
each body. The lean-faces should not be noti
ably condensed, nor the fat-faces offensively <
panded. The variation should be slight, so tl
HLHLHL
Fat Standard Lean
the types of a lean- and a standard-face, or
a fat- and a standard-face, may be used togetl
in the same line if occasion require. Assumi
that the standard width of the twenty-six capi
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Needed for Book Titles 247
letters is twenty ems of its own body, the full ser-
ies of lean letters should measure about eighteen
ems, and the full series of fat letters should mea-
sure about twenty-two ems of the same body. Each
series of fat, lean, and standard form should be
eut of the same height, thickness of stem, and
length of serif. The peculiarity of the style, and
the exact lining of all the characters, should be
maintained in each series.
With types made after this system the charac-
ters of each proximate series could often be used
interchangeably. Set in types of stan- Advantage to
lard width, a line that is too long for compositor
ihe measure could be cut down to proper length
tfith types of the lean form. This could be done
without any loss of perspicuity, and without pro-
voking any suspicion as to the possible change of
ace. Provided with a complete series of two-
ine letters of uniform face, and of three distinct
ridths, the compositor of book titles would find
lis task as easy as it is now difficult. The improved
appearance of a title-page that has been composed
q types of uniform face, that has not been dis-
igured with spacing, and that gives proper promi-
lence to each line, needs no explanation. The
est of a complete series of two-line letters made
Iter this plan would be great, but the benefit to
>e had therefrom would be equally great ; for the
ime that is now lost, without any compensating
>enefit, in futile attempts to compose book titles
Digitized by VaOOQlC
248 Large Bomans Neglected
with insufficient sizes and faces of type won
soon pay for the cutting of many series.
Bomans of large size and two-line capitals w
be bought more freely when they are made mu
Frailty of stronger. Types with protracted ha
modem-out lines and long, weak serifs, like those
two-lines £ ne fashion now prevailing, are no mc
adapted for the general work of a printing hoi]
than kid gloves are for manual labor. A prude
printer, who foresees the risks of injury that tyi
of this cut have to meet, regards them as a luxui
for they are quite as frail as script, and can
judiciously used only for printing that is intend
to be light, delicate, and feminine. No one dai
use them for posters or for ordinary job printii
Scotch
A six-line roman of light-face.
They find but a limited employment in book tit]
and newspaper headings : even in this small fi€
of service they are often rejected as unsuitab
The six-line roman here shown, which is of a fi
series of both roman and a mated italic on mai
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Firmer Hair-lines Demanded 249
bodies from agate to ten-line pica, has a remark-
able beauty of form, but is relatively weak. It
will be found entirely unsuitable if used in a book
title for a display line in red ink. Bold as it may
seem, there is not surface enough on the larger
sizes to show a good color, and it is too feeble
to resist ordinary wear. If it be compared with
the Elzevir or the Caslon capitals shown on pages
241-2, the reader cannot fail to note the superior
fitness for general service of the older forms.
If an approved face of modern-cut capital were
made with the thick hair-line and strong serif of
these sturdy old-styles, and if this new why the old-
style were cut as has been recommended 8t y le i8 llked
for every body in the three distinct series of a lean,
a standard, and a fat shape, the preference now
given to the old-style character would be largely
diminished. The new capitals would have all the
strength and readability of the old-style, with a
precision of form and a mechanical grace of finish
not to be found in any of the earlier models.
The specimens of firmer faces shown on previ-
ous pages are indications that the admiration for
hair-lines and for emasculated printing is nearing
its end. To these specimens may be added another
style recently introduced by the American Type
Pounders Company, which is illustrated on the
following page. The stem and hair-line are prac-
tically of the same thickness, yet the face is light
and inviting. It promises to be a readable letter.
32
Digitized by VaOOQlC
250 Modern Two-line Types
DR. JAVAL'S NOTIONS ABOUT SERIFS.
These attachments to the stems were not put on
purely as ornament, nor kept there only in obedi-
ence to tradition. They can be seen in English
manuscripts of the seventh century; they were
used by Italian calligraphers ; they were adopted
by the earliest printers of Rome and of Paris ;
they continue to be used to this day for the pur-
pose of increasing the readability of the characters.
10-point Cushing or Monotone.
Some early forms of roman letter have neve
been reproduced. One style, probably drawn b
Robert Granjon, used by the printers of Lyoni
and occasionally by Froben of Basle, is really «
light as that of the thinnest of modern ligh
faces, yet it has no sharp hair-line, not even i
the smallest capitals.
COPLEY
Double great-primer Copley.
The Boston Type Foundry makes a few larg
sizes of roman capitals of quaint form, in imiti
tion of a peculiar style devised by the old sigi
painters of that city. This Copley face is pr<
vided with small capitals, and is not an unpleasin
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Modern Two-line Types
251
variation of the standard form. Although useful
for display lines in job-work, modern taste con-
demns it as too bold for book titles or for initials.
ABCDEFGHIJKL
A bold-face in fashion from 1810 to 1825.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
A medium-face with the flat serifs in fashion from 1820 to 1840.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
A light-face with flat serifs, of a later period.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
A medium-face of the present style.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
" Half title" of modern cut with bracketed serifs.
ABCDEFGHIJKL
A light-face of modern cut.
Six series of two-line letters on 16-point body.
The illustrations of two-line faces on this page
ire fair specimens of styles that have successively
prevailed in this century. Since the fat-faces went
)ut of fashion the tendency has been toward light-
less or delicacy as to face, and frequently to nar-
Digitized by LjOOQLC
252 Evils of the Hair-line
rowness as to shape. For some styles of te^
type not one of these faces is really suitable : t
bold-face may be too bold, and the light-face t
light, to serve either as an initial or as a letter 1
the title. There are not sizes enough of any sty
but the letters of different styles cannot be us
together even in different lines upon the same pa$
The conservatism of type-founders is fairly illi
trated by these exhibits. In every series, wheti
universality °* ^ ean or standard shape, of light-
of nair-iine bold-face, the sharp hair-line is alwa
maintained. The stem may be twice as thick
AMERICAN
INITIAL
Bold-faced two-line types with weak serifs.
twice as thin as those of old models, but the ha
line is always the same. From the reader's ai
printer's point of view this mannerism is unfort
nate. Putting aside the wear that these types mi
receive on press, a prudent printer has to ask t
question, "How many times can letters like th«
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Hair-lines Impair Readability 253
be handled by the compositor without injury?"
Even upon bodies no smaller than great-primer,
these sharp-lined romans are too weak to be dis-
tributed pell-mell in the case. The type that falls
but six inches and strikes a serif must receive a
damaging bruise.
The smaller sizes of light-faced romans are not
so liable to injury from handling, but they are ob-
jectionable because they are indistinct. Limitations
Sharp lines and dazzling serifs make all of hair-line
the light-faces hard to read. They have a rightful
place in ornamental typography, for they are ex-
ceedingly beautiful if judged by a feminine stan-
dard of beauty, but they are entirely out of place
in serious books, or in any text of importance, in
which an indistinct letter or word demands of the
reader a straining of the eyes.
The designers of the extreme light-faces seem to
have forgotten that the old methods of presswork
have been abandoned. Books as made gharp lineB
now are rarely printed on damp paper, not adapted
or against an elastic impression surface for wear
which necessarily thickens the sharp lines. Mod-
ern printing needs hair-lines that are thicker and
not thinner. 1 Unfortunately the needs of the reader
are lightly regarded by the men who make types.
1 Blades, in a review of the types were he to see them care-
types of the Enschede* Foundry, fully and delicately printed by
says that its renowned punch- modern methods of presswork
cutter Fleischmann probably on sized and calendered paper,
would not recognize his own "Book- worm" of April, 1870.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
254 Types should be made for Headers
They think more of the display of their own ski
The punch-cutter's straining after a hair-line tl
stops just before invisibility is ably seconded
the pressman who scantily inks these light-fa<
with a hard ink-roller, and then with the feebl
possible impression impresses them against an
elastic surface on dry and hard calendered pap
This weak and misty style of printing is vas
admired by many printers, and perhaps by a f
publishers, but it is as heartily disliked by all w
believe that types should be made for the ne€
of the reader more than for an exhibition of 1
skill of the printer or type-founder.
The rights of readers deserve more conside
tion. The rules that editors and men of busin
Distinctness is a PPty **> writing should be applied
always of first book-types. The hand- writing tl
importance ca nnot easily be read, even if its
dividual letters have been most daintily and sci
tifically formed by a master of penmanship, w
the sharpest of hair-lines and the greatest pro
sion of flourishes, is quite as intolerable as tl
which is slovenly and illegible. No printer <
sires it for his copy ; no merchant tolerates it
his account books ; no one wants it in his cor
spondence. If one seeks a cause for the mercj
tile and editorial dislike of a so-called " pretl
handwriting, he is sure to find it partially
its needless flourishes and largely in its delic
and unseen " razor-edged " lines.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
VII
Condensed Roman Types
HE inflexibility of the types made
for titles of books lias always been
an annoyance to compositors. There
are occasions when it seems neces-
sary to put a certain number of let-
ters or words in one line. If there are too many
letters in this display line the types will be small
and weak ; if there are too few letters the Need f or a
types will be too big and too bold. The condensed
typographical practice which prevailed ° aracter
before the year 1840 permitted types marked for a
prominent line of display to be widely spaced be-
tween letters when there were not letters enough
in the words to fill the measure. The en and the
em quadrat were frequently used as spaces. It
was not permitted to set the words for large dis-
play in two connected lines of the same size and
style of type, either with or without a hyphen.
256
Digitized by VaOOQlC
256 Beginnings of Pinched Types
The words for large display must always be in <
line, whether they were few or many. In the ea
days of printing the division of a prominent 1
was a common practice, but for a full centur}
least the division of displayed words in titles
been regarded as a mangling of language and
unworkmanlike in the highest degree.
To avoid what was regarded as the uncoi
division of the display lines of titles, or the
condensed ternative of a selection of capitals
letters once small for proper display, printers 1
in fashion ^ resor t to condensed capitals, wh
seem to have first been shown in France ab
the year 1820. As two-line letters for titles,
as initials, or as headings of chapters, they ha
remarkable success. Their slender, symmetri
shapes were an agreeable contrast to the stun
Mmm
MMm
M M H
Condensed two-line letters.
forms of the rudely cut two -line fat -faces tl
in fashion. Every publisher wanted condeni
letters in his titles, and they were furnished
many bodies from one-line nonpareil to ten-1
pica. Some were but moderately condensed,
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Ineffectiveness of Pinched Types 257
which shape they were not more objectionable
than the lean-faced capitals of a thin font; but
the shape most popular was that of a character
almost one half the width of the standard two-
line letter. The legibility and the effectiveness of
each letter were diminished with every new degree
of narrowness, but this did not prevent the mak-
ing, and use, of still thinner characters, which were
labeled as extra condensed and double extra con-
densed. In due time came lower-case letters for
most of the new capitals, all of which were readily
accepted and used by job printers. In English and
American book houses the condensed shape never
found favor ; for a noticeably condensed lower-
case has never yet been accepted as a proper text
letter for the standard book.
The use of the condensed capitals for book titles
was carried to great excess, and a reaction followed.
After a sufficient experience it was 0bJectedt0
proved that the appearance of titles was as frail and
really injured by a decidedly condensed tad* 8 * 1 ™*
letter. The thin type enabled the printer to get
displayed words of many letters in one line, but the
letters were necessarily weak, and in violent con-
trast to the letters of other lines which had to be
set in capitals of a standard form. Pinched letters
and indistinct lines always seem out of place in
the ample white space of the ordinary book title.
The only form of condensed two-line letter now
approved by critical printers is one which barely
33
Digitized by LjOOQIC
258 Delicacy of the Larger Sizes
deserves the title of condensed, for it is but
tie thinner than the capitals of the ordinary 1<
letter still used for book-texts. Many publi
ers have gone back to the old form, and refuse
MMMMMM
iMl
A recent form of condensed two-line letters.
use any variety of condensed two-line letter
book titles. One reason for this objection is
mechanical feebleness of all the condensed lett
Many of them are copied from French models
great delicacy, in which the hair-line of the
line pica is almost as sharp as that of the two-]
diamond. The specimen that follows is a :
example of a French fashion of two-line let
Note the slenderness of the hair-line, the exl
CHUEN
A French form of two-line letter.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Limits to Condensation 259
sion and flatness of the serif. To every reader of
imperfect eyesight these hair-lines are practically
invisible ; a letter is guessed at by its stems.
There are limits to the narrowing of letters
that cannot be safely exceeded. For the bodies
of pica, small-pica, long-primer, and 8malltype8
bourgeois, the punch-cutter can make should not
a lower-case alphabet readable within be v™^
the compass of twelve ems of its own body, but
he cannot make a satisfactory text-letter under
this rule for any smaller body. Even when he
proposes to make a symmetrical series of sizes,
he cannot reduce size by strict geometrical rule.
The alphabet of bourgeois may be kept within
twelve ems, but that of agate should have fifteen
ems, and that of diamond seventeen ems. 1 The
insistence of newspaper publishers, who desired
to crowd much reading in a very small space,
has frequently induced type-founders to cut types
below the standard, but never satisfactorily. Of
the larger sizes of brevier and bourgeois the con-
densed types were not as clear and readable ; of
the smaller sizes of nonpareil and agate the
figures, fractions, and all the characters contain-
ing close lines, soon became indistinct and of
uncertain meaning after a moderate amount of
wear. The slight advantages obtained in one
direction were lost in another. A font of lean or
1 See remarks and illustrations standards of type on pages 114-
>f the widths and the variable 116 of this volume.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
260 Condensed Text-types Avoided
moderately condensed type wore out much sooi
than a font of standard-face. When it was <
monstrated that lean types of small body w<
deficient in durability and readability they w(
out of fashion. A strong reaction to the otl
extreme soon followed. The smaller types
many of our newspapers are now as much 1
broad as they were too narrow.
In a recent essay, a French optician 1 lays do
the proposition that the diminution of readabil
Dr.javars * n ^ e sma ll er ^es of roman low
comments on case is chiefly due to their diminuti
readability - n height He gayg ^ ft ^^ ^
should not be condensed, for it is too short; bu
large type may be moderately condensed with<
loss of readability, as it is high. As the prinl
rarely placed in a strictly vertical line for the p
pose of reading, but is usually held in the ha
or put on the desk at an angle of about fo
degrees, it follows that the perception and idei
fication of small letters are somewhat hindei
by their shortness. They will not bear the fc
shortening made by the inclination of the pri
The condensed faces shown on pages 205 a
215 of this work are about the thinnest that hi
been used for books in France, but they have i
been approved by English or American publish*
Yet there are evidences that the prejudice agar
1 M. Javal, " La typographic, lustrated with types in " Re
et l'hygiene de la vue," fully il- Scientifique," No. 26, June, 1
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Condensed Types Needed for Books 261
condensed forms of the larger sizes is relaxing.
There is need for a thin text-letter in poetry and
in the page of two columns. To use a where thin
round- or a broad-face in poetry where types are of
the comparative narrowness of the 8ervlce
measure compels a turn-over of the last syllable
or word, or in a double-columned page where
the narrowness of the measure compels the com-
positor to wide-space and thin-space in adjacent
lines, is always a serious disfigurement, and an
offense to the reader. To select a smaller size of
type and to lead or double-lead the composition
is an equally objectionable alternative, for this
procedure diminishes the readability of the type,
increases the cost of composition, and produces
the effect of padding by its needless extension of
the matter. To make a larger page on a larger
leaf increases expense in another direction with-
out benefit to author, publisher, or reader. The
only proper treatment of composition in a narrow
or contracted space is to select a roman type that
has been made for and is adapted to the narrow
column or page. For all bodies below 10-point a
narrowing that makes their lower-case alphabets
thinner than that of the prevailing standards is
not to be recommended. Experience has proved
its inutility. For bodies between 10-point and 20-
point, condensed styles with alphabets of about
eleven ems could be used to good advantage in
the best book-work. Types larger than 12-point,
Digitized by VaOOQlC
262 Much Used by Job Printers
that are now rejected by publishers as too coai
and sprawling, would be readily accepted if th
were made of good cut, in the moderately c<
densed shape of the style on page 215. A lai
size of this form, set solid, would be more inviti
to the eye and more readable than a smaller s
widened by leads. Unfortunately, a full series
moderately condensed face is not made by a
American founder on a body larger than 14-poi
The face shown on page 214 has to be submitl
as the nearest approximation.
INTRODUCTION TO LOGOGRAPHY, oi
the Art of Arranging and Composing foi
Printing with Words Intire, their Radices
and Terminations, instead of Single Let
ters. Henry Johnson, London, 1783.
An early form of condensed pica, leaded.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
Job printers have always appreciated the s
viceability of condensed types. For the disp]
lines of cards, handbills, and advertisements c<
densed shapes of every style are as freely us
now as they were fifty years ago, and there is
reason to believe that they will ever go out
fashion. The condensed face shown on this paj
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Condensed Light-face
263
which was introduced when fat-faced types were
in the height of fashion, had all the defects of the
text-types of that period — the thick stem and the
shallow counter, the flat serif and the over-sharp
hair-line.
This style was not made in any size smaller than
brevier. It wore out with little use. Its defects
were seen and avoided in the cutting of a more
popular face of condensed which soon followed.
DR. WILLIAM CHURCH OF AMERICA
received a British Patent, March, 1828,
for " Improved Apparatus for Print-
ing," which was intended to cast and
compose types at an unusual speed.
A later form of condensed pica, leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
In this face the stems are relatively lighter, and
the counters are deeper, but the serif and hair-line
are as delicate as those of the earlier face. Some
fonts of condensed have capitals that are not
proper mates for the lower-case alphabet — each
series obviously the work of a different punch-
cutter. This incongruity properly excludes them
from book-work, but even if they were unexcep-
tionably cut, all the early faces on pica and the
Digitized by VaOOQlC
264 Extra Condensed Styles
smaller bodies are too condensed for a readat
text. The merit of roman condensed is best shoi
by a specimen of the style on a larger body.
A. DELCAMBRE
Composing Machine
March 13, 1840
A modern cut of condensed on double english body.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
This beautiful letter, which is provided by soi
founders in a full series from pica to six-line pic
would be more largely used if it had been ma
with stronger lines.
Although the faces previously shown are t
condensed for any text of good book- work, th
are not condensed enough to meet all the requi]
ments of job printers. For their use a series
extra condensed, ranging from brevier to four-li
pica, has been provided.
In the headings or columns of table-work, or
any other place where a large type seems to be ]
quired in contracted space, this style is of vah
but it is seriously abused when it is inconsid<
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Extra Condensed Styles
265
ately selected because it enables the compositor to
crowd in one line the words or letters that should
have been put in two lines with better effect. As
the lower-case alphabet of this illustration comes
WILLIAM HASLETT MITCHEL, of Brooklyn, N. Y., received
patents in 1853 from the United States and Great Britain for
the first practical and efficient type-composing machine. It
was kept in nse for many years in the office of John F.
Trow, of New York, but failed for want of a proper distribator.
Pica extra condensed.
George Brace's Son & Co.
within eight ems of its own body, it approaches
obscureness too closely. It can be used properly
in very narrow measures, or in places where no
other face of type will serve ; yet it is not uncom-
mon to see this face in the titles of French books
in which there is abundance of white space.
i *
This style of extra condensed, but in the series
of capitals only, is occasionally to be found upon
34
Digitized by VaOOQlC
266 Old-style Condensed
the covers, and sometimes upon the inner titL
of recent books by Parisian printers. Made
full series from pica to six-line pica, this remai
ably pinched style had a brief popularity in tl
country, but it is now entirely out of use, and c
servedly so, for it proved a frail and most unsat
factory type. The job printer of the present tii
prefers for condensed letters the newer styles
the antique or gothic class, which are more distil
and more durable.
The old-style character has been pressed, b
not without difficulty, into service as a condens
type. The face on this page, without lower-cai
was obviously made for a two-line letter. It cc
forms as closely as its condensed shape will all<
to the general outline of the old-style form, b
the spirit and the effect of the true old-style moc
are entirely wanting. The masculine strength ai
easy legibility of the model have been destroye
we have instead the feminine curves and the de
TIMOTHY ALDEN'S
MACHINE OF 1846
Two-line small-pica condensed old-style.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Old-style Condensed
267
cacy of line affected by a teacher of penmanship
or an engraver of visiting cards.
A style not so condensed, but with stems a trifle
thicker and with hair-lines equally sharp, is shown
by the MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Co. This face,
or the one illustrated on the preceding page, is
generally preferred for the initial letters and the
title-page letters of texts that have been composed
in modernized old-style.
NEW OLD.-STYLE
M.S.&J.CO.,i88o.
Two-line small-pica condensed old-style.
Another variety of condensed modernized old-
style, provided with lower-case characters, is made
by James Conner's Sons. In this variety the hair-
lines are a trifle firmer, but the spirit of the old-
style is traced with difficulty in its smaller sizes.
Odd Old-style
Four-line pica old-style condensed.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
268
Extra Condensed Old-style
Old-style condensed letter is made in a great
variety, and is more thoroughly graded, than t
established old-style of standard form. From t
bodies commonly used a printer can select two
three distinct widths, which mate better than t
condensed of modern-face.
An extra condensed old-style is also provide
in which a few of the peculiarities of the old f 01
are somewhat exaggerated while others are e
tirely neglected. It is largely used as a displi
letter in advertisements.
Much Pinched Old-style
40-point old-style extra condensed.
In all these attempts to reproduce the streng
and simplicity of the old Caslon character, it dc
not appear that any founder has copied the fii
hair-line which is one of its most characteris
features.
Digitized byCjOOQlC
Ntl ^^^^^l^lgt^ltllt!^ ^
VIII
Italic Types
TALIC is never selected now as the
type for the text of a book, but it
may be used with good effect for its
preface. Good taste forbids its too
frequent employment in its much-
abused office of distinguishing emphatic Limitations
words. An excess of italic spots and in the use of
disfigures the page, confuses the eye, itaUct 5^ e8
and really destroys the emphasis it was intended
to produce. Yet italic cannot be entirely put
aside. There is no other style so well adapted for
sub-headings, for names of actors or persons in
plays, for titles of books, and for special words not
emphatic that should be discriminated at a glance.
Although useful, italic is not liked by printers
or founders, for it is troublesome to cut and cast,
and it has many kerned letters that often break
unexpectedly. There are mechanical difficulties
Digitized by VaOOQlC
270 Original Old-style Italic
not easily overcome in all attempts to put
inclined face on a square body. The inclinati
Mechanical must seem uniform in all letters, t
difficulties many letters must be cut with varyi
angles to shorten the unsightly gaps betwe
irregular characters. Kerns are unavoidable, I
much ingenuity is often required to prevent c
kern from overriding another. There are f
forms of faultless italic, but the earlier faces x
the most objectionable for uneven workmanshi
ALD US MANUTIUS
exhibited his first form of
Italic type in his octavo edi-
tion of Virgil, Venice ', 1 5 o 1 .
Original old-style italic on 22-point body, solid.
MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Go.
The italic furnished with the " original n
style has some capitals which are sprawling a
uncouth. They seem badly mated with each otb
1 Aldus, the inventor of italic, using upright capitals of si
evaded the mechanical dimcul- size instead of inclined capi
ties by giving to the characters of full height. No modern
the slightest possible inclina- viver of old letters has evei
tion, by making logotypes of all tempted a faithful reproduci
the interfering letters, and by of the Aldine italic.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Dutch Italic Baskerville Italic 271
and with its thick-stemmed and condensed lower-
case. In the small sizes of this style the characters
of the lower-case are of lighter face, sometimes so
light that they are not proper mates for the roman.
The larger sizes are frequently selected, more for
their quaintness than for their beauty, as a strik-
ing display letter for advertisements. 1
There are old-style italics in use that seem to
have been made up from a haphazard collection
of discarded punches or matrices, gath- R U de forms
ered from old Dutch and early English of old italic
type-founders of inferior reputation. When the
different sizes so collected are shown on one page,
there is a painful discord from the inequality and
irregular angularity of the characters. These un-
couth types, which were never used by good print-
ers, are often, but erroneously, regarded by readers
as of greater age and relatively higher merit. 2
The italic designed by Baskerville has capital
letters of better form, but they have never been
faithfully reproduced by any type-founder of this
century. The Baskerville italic is more condensed
and more script-like than that of Caslon.
1 Field & Tuer, of the Lead- 2 One of the rudest and most
enhall Press, London, have for uncouth forms of old-style italic
their exclusive use an excellent is shown by Moxon in his " Me-
f orm of old-style italic of bold chanick Exercises " of 1683, and
face, with the swash letters and with larger drawings and more
other features of quaintness, of detail in his earlier book of
which they use with good effect 1676,— the " Regul® Trium Or-
for initials and for the running dinum Literarum Typographi-
titles of books printed in the carum, or the Rules of the Three
fashion of the last century. Orders of Print Letters."
Digitized by VaOOQlC
272 Modernized Old-style Italic
To the Worjhipful
SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN, Knight,
Surveyor of His Majefly's Buildings.
Sir,
To you as to a Lover of Rule and Proportion I
humbly Dedicate these my Observations upon Let-
ters : If they prove Acceptable to you I have my
whole Wifh, andfhallbe careless of the Sleigh tings
or Censures of the Ignorant Contemners of Order
and Symmetry.
Sir, I am
Your mofl Humble Servant,
[London, 1676.) JOSEPH MOXON.
Modernized old-style italic on long-primer body, leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
The modernized old-style italic follows the gei
eral form approved by Caslon, but it is a trif
broader in the lower-case sorts, lighter as to sten
and all the characters have a script-like slende
ness of extended hair-line not to be found in tl
Caslon original. The old forms of T and b ha\
been properly rejected for T and h ; but what
the reason for the occasional retention of the
in place of Jf The long /and its double lettei
are not completely reproduced. The smaller size
are sometimes provided with inclined figures,
is largely used for prefaces, and by job printei
as a text-letter for circulars in place of script.
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Elzevir Old-style Italic
273
This Elzevir italic is the true mate of the Elze-
vir roman shown on page 200. It is of a bolder
face and of closer set, and has thicker Mannerisms
stems and firmer hair-lines than the of Eizevir
modernized old-style italic. While it reproduces
nearly all the peculiar mannerisms of the origi-
nal — the bold and dashing swashes of the capi-
ABBE DE VILLIERS, 1699. I know a man
who denies himself the things that are most ne-
cessary, so that be can collect in a library, scant-
ily provided with other boohs, as many little
Elzevirs as he can find. In bis pangs of hunger
be consoles himself with his ability to say: "I
have ten copies of each, and all of them have the
rubricated letters, and all are of good editions."
Elzevir old-style italic on body 10, leaded.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
tals, the conjoined #, and the logotypes of final
s — as, es, is, us — these mannerisms have been so
remodeled that they cease to be uncouth or offen-
sive. In most forms of printing they really add
to its effectiveness. The Elzevir is largely used in
book offices for prefaces, and as a suitable letter
for subheadings and running-titles.
Unfortunately this style of italic is not made
>n any of the larger bodies. There is a real need
)f larger sizes from 20-point to 72-point.
35
Digitized
by Google
274
French Old-style Italic
The French form of old-style italic is more rou
and open, and is sometimes of wider set than a
used by American or English printers of boo!
Its most pronounced peculiarity is the thickeni
of the stem in every rounded letter obliquely,
"on its back," as type-founders call it. See 1
0, a, p, d, and other rounded characters. T]
mannerism, and the old-fashioned models of
and W, give to this style decided plainness a
simplicity. There are other peculiarities of fa
especially noticeable in the increased width
the capitals, which stamp this French italic w:
a distinct character. Its great fault is its frailt
the kerns on f and y are too long and too weak
A FRENCH DECREE of 1649. We
command that, for the future, printers and
publishers shall take one lad only as appren-
tice. He must be of good life and manners,
Catholic, of French birth, qualified to serve
the public, well read in Latin, and able to
read Greek, of which he shall have a certifi-
cate from the rector of the University, un-
der penalty of 300 livres and the cancelling
of the license of the offending master printer .
French old-style italic on body 11, leaded.
Fonderie Turlot, Paris.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Bold-faces and Light-faces
275
This bold-faced italic is the mate of the roman
on page 80. It has great boldness and blackness,
but its hair-lines are slender and too readily worn.
It is freely used by job printers as a display letter
for circulars, and for book advertisements.
DANIEL TBEADWELL,
born in Ipswich, Massachusetts,
10th October, 1791, invented the
first power platen press made
in the United States. The new
press had merit, but was soon
superseded by the more efficient
Adams press. He died in Cam-
bridge, 10th October, 1872.
Modern bold-face italic on Columbian body, solid.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Italics of light-face seldom appear in our speci-
men books. The light-faced romans of American
manufacture are too often provided with italics of
a thicker stem and of a different style, with which
they always make a most unpleasing contrast.
The face shown on the following page is of the
round and open form which seems to be preferred
by French publishers.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
276 French Light-face Italic
G. A.CRAPELET, a distinguished printer
and publisher, was born in Paris in 1789,
and died at Nice in 1842. His editions
are highly appreciated by connoisseurs for
their accuracy and excellent workman-
ship. He received medals of silver in 1827
and 1834 for his many services to French
typography. His writings on the history
and practice of printing are of value.
Modern French light-face italic on body 10, leaded.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
The form of condensed italic at the foot of this
page is of an older fashion that still survives. It
is the mate of the French-face shown on page 215.
JULES DIDOT, a son of Pierre, was bom
August 5, 1794, and died May 18, 1871.
He was an expert type-founder and an ad-
mirableprinter , but not a successful publisher.
His presswork on vellum has never been sur-
passed. For his services to France as an edu-
cator in the art of fine printing he was deco-
rated with the medal of the Legion of Honor.
Condensed French-face italic on body 12, solid.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
French Italics
277
The round and bold-faced italic shown on this
page is in the so-called Didot style : it is the mate
of the roman shown on page 218.
HYACINTHE DIDOT, a younger
brother ofAmbroise Fir min- Didot,
was born in IJ94* After i85j he
became Director of the Didot print-
ing-office. He was a Chevalier of
the Legion of Honor, and member
ofthe Municipal Council of the Eure.
Eighteenth-century French-face italic on body 12, solid.
Gustave Mayeur, Paris.
The inclination of italic allows the punch-cutter
a much greater freedom of design than he can ex-
ercise in the drawing of plain roman italics of
letter. Of this privilege the designers new forms
of France have made liberal use. Many of the
French-faces have peculiarities of marked merit,
but these peculiarities are not accepted by English
or American publishers, who object to any devia-
tion from their own standards. French publishers
are more tolerant. In standard books and maga-
zines many of them admit such forms of italic as
" Venetian w and "engraver's," which are here ex-
cluded from good book-work. In America the
only form of fanciful italic tolerated in books is
the engraver's hair-line, when used for mottos.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
278 Hair-line Inclined Roman
IjjkYJkl&D ZjZYLOIf, author, was born in
Kennett Square, (Pennsylvania, 11th January,
1825. He began as a printer in 18J(.2. fifter
a service of two years he went abroad, traveling-
always on foot, supporting himself by contri-
butions to journals. Jls traveller, lecturer, poet,
and translator, he earned a high reputation,
fit his death, 19th (December, 1878, he was the
ambassador of the United States at Ijerlin.
Engraver's hair-line italic on long-primer body, solid.
George Brace's Son & Co.
The inclined roman shown at foot of this page
is one of the many French varieties of italic. It
has found ready sale with job printers, but it is an
innovation that does not please critical publishers.
WILLIAM A. BULLOCK, inventor of the
rotary printing-machine then known as
the Bullock press, was born at Green ville,
Greene County, New York, in 1813. He was
fully taught the trade of machinist, and
qualified himself as a mechanician. He
made many presses of merit. He died at
Philadelphia, 14th April, 1867, from an
accident which befell him when he was put-
ting up and adjusting one of his machines
in the office of the "Philadelphia Ledger."
Inclined roman on 10-point body, solid.
Benton, Waldo & Co., Milwaukee.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Law Italic Fanciful Italics 279
The law italic here shown is broader, clearer,
and more easily read than any other. These good
qualities have been secured by making each char-
acter wider, by giving greater prominence to the
round letters, and by shortening the lines of the
descending letters. In England and America it is
used only as a job-letter; in France it is some-
times used for the running-titles and the sub-
headings of standard books.
PIERRE FRAMQOIS DIDOT, son
of Francois, was bom at Paris, 9th
July, 1732, and there he died, 7th
December, 1793. He was a skilful
type- founder, a manufacturer of
fine bookpaper at Essonne, and the
publisher of many books remark-
able for their typographical merit.
. Law italic on long-primer body, double leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
The line which separates italic from script is not
easily drawn. There are many styles of type half
italic and half script, but all of them are properly
regarded as unsuitable for book-work. This re-
mark can also be applied to faces like the "en-
graver's," " lithographic," "French/' "Harvard," and
other styles that are ornamented with flourishes.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
280 Italic Figures and Small Capitals
The elongated italic is an extremely condensed
form of thick-faced italic. It is practically an en-
largement of the face shown at foot of page 276.
It is cast only of large size, and usually on a
rhomboidal body, to prevent the kerning of long
characters.
Italic figures are comparatively modern. They
are made for many of the standard varieties of
old-style letter, but rarely for italic of modern
cut. The need of italic figures is clearly shown
wherever figures have to be used in lines of italic
capitals. The upright small capitals of Aldus by
the side of his inclined italic are not more incon-
gruous than the irregular but upright figures of
roman when they are embedded in an italic text.
Small capitals of italic are sometimes furnished
to some fonts by Scotch type-founders, but they
are not made in the United States.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
IX
Fat-face or Title-types
(EVENTY years ago fat-face types
were in fashion. It was believed
that the legibility of a new style
could be largely augmented by giv-
ing to it greater blackness of face.
With this end in view, the designer of the fat-face
made the body of each character from one- Fat-face
fourth to one-half wider than that of the made for
ordinary text-letter. Then the body -marks di8play
were made extremely thick, to the consequent nar-
rowing of the spaces between the body-marks and
a greater shallowness of counter. The hair-lines
were cut as sharp as those of the standard roman
text-letter. So treated, the fat-face thoroughly de-
served its name, for the face covered the body.
The relation of black and white was reversed:
there was more stem than counter on the body,
36 281
Digitized by VaOOQlC
282 Early Cuts of Fat-face
and more black than white in the print, mak-
ing it really blacker than the ordinary forms of
old black-letter. Job printers and newspaper
publishers accepted the new face as suitable for
display lines, and for the title lines of newspaper
articles. Its frequent employment for these titles
made it also known as title-letter. In its day it
PLASTER
STEREOTYPING
Done in 1 8 13 by D. & «. Brace, If . Y.
No. HO.
johjy
JVJMTTS » CO.
Stereotyped
in JVew York, 1813
No. HI.
Fat-face or title of an early cut on long-primer body.
George Brace's Son & Co.
was so much admired that it was occasionally used
as a text-letter for books. 1 The earlier forms of
the fat-face are still shown in the specimen books,
but they are seldom bought or used by printers of
our time, for they are as unprofitable as they are
ineffective. The stronger impression required for
the stems is too much for the weak hair-lines,
l In 1837, I. Ashmead & Co. pages. The entire text of this
of Philadelphia published an book is in pica fat-face of the
edition of "Heavenly Incense, boldest form. The forbidding
or the Christian's Compan- solemnity of every page is in-
ion," a chunky octavo of 612 describable.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Modern Cuts of Fat-face 283
which soon break down. A more serious defect
is the shallowness of the counters, which often
become choked with ink. Fat-face types of the
old form are therefore practically obsolete.
The fat-face italic, which is a mate of the fat-
face roman, was received by the book printers
of the first quarter of this century with Fat-face
marked disapproval. Italic had been the ita,ic
synonym of all that was light and graceful in
type, but when introduced in a form as thick and
bold as that of black-letter, all book printers de-
nounced it as an uncouth letter. This prejudice
still holds; for standard books fat-face italic is
regarded as unsuitable. As a job-letter it is a
favorite, and will not go out of fashion. For
catalogue work many persons prefer it over all
forms of display letter. Recent cuts of this letter
are of lighter face and have inclined figures.
STEREOTYPE PLATES
Made by Wm. Ged, in Edinburgh, 1725
No. 1*3.
EARL STANHOPE
In 1802 made good plates in London
No. U4.
Title or bold-face of modern cut on long-primer body.
George Brace's Son & Co.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
284 Condensed Titles
In the newer forms, better known now as bold-
face, many of the objectionable features have been
New outs of removed. The stems are thinner, the
fat-faoe counters are wider and deeper, the let-
ters are not so fat and are of more pleasing forms.
For the side headings of dictionaries and book-
catalogues, for which a moderate degree of prom-
inence or display is needed, this new cut of title-
type is accepted in books in which no other style
of display type would be tolerated. Much to the
surprise of many publishers, it has been proved
that this lighter-faced style of bold-face is really
more readable and more durable than the older
styles of over-black fat-faces.
The need, or the supposed need, of a condensed
form of bold-face or title-type that will present
condensed ^ e greatest boldness in the narrowest
forms of compass, has induced all founders to
boid-faoe finish these faces on condensed and
extra condensed bodies. Many of them are made
in a full series of so-called regular bodies in capi-
tals and lower-case. The over-black styles with
flat and feeble ser-
ifs, and without any
proper relief of con-
trasting white space
An over-biack title of an old fashion, in their counters, are
seldom bought. The extra condensed forms of
lighter face and better cut are more useful. In
the narrow measures of tables, and in some other
same
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Condensed Titles 285
forms of printed work, they are of occasional ser-
vice, but they are grossly misused when they make
print indistinct for no other reason than the sup-
posed necessity for crowding many characters in
one line. The extra condensed title capitals of the
French founders, once much admired by all job
printers, are now deservedly neglected.
The most approved form of condensed title is
that usually named Aldine. Its condensation is
slight, for the larger sizes have letters Aidine
not much thinner than those of the ordi- t^id-** ®
nary lean text-letter. Having firm hair-lines, with
deep and open counters, it is one of the few dis-
play types tolerated in fair book-work. The Al-
STEBE0TTP1NG BY PRESSURE
In Semi-fluid Metal, by Carez of Paris, 1786
Aldine.
STEREOTYPIC BT PAPIERllCHE PROCESS
Done by Genonx of Paris in 1829 for a French Dictionary
Extra condensed title.
Condensed and extra condensed title
on long-primer body.
dine series usually shown in the specimen books
of type-founders includes twelve bodies, from pearl
to eight-line pica. In the smaller sizes of pearl and
nonpareil this style loses much of its clearness.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
286 Expanded Titles
Title-types are also made of expanded shape.
The face first made, then known as extended, or
Extended fat-face extended, is completely and de-
fat-face servedly out of use. The specimens here
shown are plain examples of the absurdity of con-
necting the thickest possible stem with the thinnest
Two-line pearl extended, No. 181.
Brevier extended, No. 181.
ELECTBOTYPING
Joseph .A.. Adams, in 1 839
Long-primer title expanded, No. 182.
Extended and expanded titles.
George Brace's Son & Co.
possible hair-line. When so made the composed
types are deciphered with difficulty. To read a
word one has to study carefully the outline of
each character. The expanded form of title now
in use is not so broad, and is of better cut, but it
is at best an uncouth style of letter, and not so
popular or so useful as the lighter face of ex-
panded roman shown in the chapter on modern
faces of roman text-letter.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Old-style Titles 287
Old-style peculiarities do not readily lend them-
selves to any style of fat-face or title-letter, but
they have been made to conform to this old-style
and other fashions with much ingenuity. fat-face
The clear and readable effect of the old-style roman
text-letter is produced not so much by its angular
peculiarity, or any other mannerism of form, as
STEREOTYPE SHAVER
David Bruce, inventor, 1814.
Pica old-style title.
by its relative monotony of color, its thicker and
shortened hair-line, and its comparatively narrow
and protracted body-mark. An over- wide fat-face
type, that emphasizes the distinction between an
over-thick stem and an over-thin hair-line, neces-
sarily destroys the most characteristic feature of
the old-style letter. It then becomes necessary to
exaggerate the angular mannerisms of the style,
but these can be shown with best effect in the
capitals only. The stubby serif, the shortened
hair-line, and the high-shouldered arch lose much
of their distinctive character when affixed to the
over-thick stems of the lower-case sorts of an
expanded letter. Old-style title so made may be
more durable and more readable than the ordi-
nary title, but it cannot be considered as a more
Digitized by VaOOQlC
288 A New Style of Title
pleasing form of letter. Critical publishers who
readily accept for a display letter any cut of old-
style antique refuse to take an old-style title.
Old-style title expanded has all of the demerits
and but few of the merits of the ordinary form of
title expanded. It is never used as a book-type,
but only as a fanciful job-letter.
The old-style title condensed, when properly cut,
is much more successful in preserving old-style
condensed peculiarities; largely so because there
old-style is more opportunity in the condensed
boid-faoe form for the lengthening f t he stems
and the shortening of the hair-lines of the lower-
case. The large sizes are most effective, but there
are cuts of condensed and extra condensed old-
styles in frequent use that are especially objec-
tionable for their bad design and bad fitting.
ALEXANDER M. TILLOCH
Made Stereotypes in Glasgow 1780
Pica De Vinne.
The form of title-letter that fairly preserves the
distinguishing characteristics of the old-style is
De vinne that made by the Central Type Foundry,
bold-face an d by that house named " De Vinne."
The general form of this new style is mainly based
on old-style roman, but it is more expanded, and
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Recent Styles of Title-type 289
has some eccentricities of design in the capital let-
ters. The stems are not over-thick, and the so-
called hair-lines have width enough to make each
SMCamdy
Four-line pica De Vinne.
character distinct and in harmony with the thick-
ened stems. It has the undeniable merits of sim-
plicity of form, readability, and durability.
A still bolder form of title-type has been recently
introduced under the name of "Atlas" by H. W.
Caslon & Co. of London. It is much blacker than
any of the early styles of title-type, for its thin
lines are fully as Arm as those of a doric antique.
The faces on the following page, although of
small size and without lower-case, may be fairly
classed with title-types. They were made by Barn-
hart Brothers & Spindler of Chicago, and are
known as Engraver's Roman. The names are
those of some of the punch-cutters of American
type-foundries of the nineteenth century, as I find
them in a series of articles on "Designers and En-
gravers of Type," written by William E. Loy, and
published in the " Inland Printer" of Chicago.
37
Digitized by VaOOQlC
290 Pimch-cutters of the United States
AUGUST E. WOERNER,
Born at Frankport-am-Main, December 18, 1844.
RESIDENT of New York. Dibd tw New Tork, July 27, 188B.
JAMES WEST,
Born at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1830.
ALEXANDER PHEMISTER,
Born at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1829.
Dibd at Chelsba, M assachtjsbtts, ik 1881.
HERMAN IHLENBURG,
Born at Berlin, Germany, in 1843.
Resident of Philadelphia.
SAMUEL SAWYER KILBURN,
Born at Buckland, Massachusetts, Dec, 1799.
Resident of Boston. Died Dec, 18G4.
GUSTAV F. SOHROEDER.
Born near Berlin, Germany, in 1861.
HARRISON T. LOUNSBURY,
Born near Pebkskill, N. Y., in 1831. died tw 1802.
W. F. O APITAINE,
Born at Southgatb, near London, January, 1851.
DA VXD BRUCE,
Born at New York, Feb. 6, 1802.
Resident of New York. Died at Brooklyn, Sept. 18, 1882.
EDWARD RUTHVEN,
Born in Scotland, Dec 31, 1811.
ALEXANDER KAY,
Born at Edinburgh, June 6, 1827.
WILLIAM W. JACKSON,
Born at Camden, New Jersey, July 25, 1847.
Died at Atlantic City, Aug. 14, 1888.
ANDREW GILBERT,
Born at Edinburgh in 1821.
Died at Chelsea, Massachusetts, July 2S, 1873.
JOHN F. GUMMING,
Born at Harrisville, Pennsylvania, May 20, 1 852.
JULIUS HERBERT, Sr.,
Born at Brunswick, Germany, Feb. 9, 1818.
Four faces on nonpareil body, of which three are here shown.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Black-letter
^LACK-LETTER is a degenerate form
of the roman character. Its man-
nerisms probably began with copy-
ists not expert at curved lines, who
had to form each letter with repeated
strokes of the reed. If the parchment kinked or
buckled, if the paper was rough, if the Beginning of
reed sputtered, repeated strokes were w**-ietter
all the more obligatory. Under these conditions
the portions of a roman letter that were curved in
the model would be straightened and made angu-
lar at every junction with connecting lines.
Whatever the cause, the angular character which
printers call black, and bibliographers call gothic, 1
was the form approved by the copyists of Europe
1 Bibliographers call it gothic character preferred by all people
because it has always been the of Gothic descent.
291
Digitized by VaOOQlC
292 Preferred by Medieval Copyists
for some centuries before the invention of printing.
Little text-writing was done in any other style.
Italian copyists preferred the simple open forms
which seem to have served as models for our mod-
ern roman and italic, but they were too few in
number to change the prevailing fashion. The
majority of copyists adhered to black-letter, and
readers who knew no other style objected to all
attempts at change.
There were many fashions of black-letter, for
there was no generally recognized standard of au-
oid forms of thority as to the correct form of letters,
biack-ietter anc i eac h copyist made them to suit his
own notions of propriety or convenience. A con-
densed and pointed form was the accepted style
for books of devotion; a rounder and more care-
less form for texts or for writing that did not
seem to call for precision. In different manu-
scripts made before the fourteenth century one
finds letters that are condensed, expanded, of light
face, of dark face, with plain capitals, with flour-
ished capitals, but all of them are of an angular
style. It cannot be said that all of these styles
are noticeably black, but most of them, espe-
cially the more pointed forms, had lines so thick
that more black than white appeared on the writ-
ten page. The English name of black-letter was
given to this character only after the introduction
and general use of roman printing-types. The
roman type was then called white-letter as a ready
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Preferred by Early Printers 293
name of distinction, for roman showed more white
than black upon the printed page.
To modern readers all the early styles of manu-
script black-letter are perplexing. One must study
each style to decipher its characters, obscurity of
The world of letters is not conscious earl y forms
of its indebtedness to the art of typography for
its enforcement of a simplification of the alpha-
bet. 1 Out of the many styles then in fashion the
early printers selected but two; probably because
they were of simple forms, popular with readers,
and easy to be made in type. One was the pointed
black-letter, now known to French bibliographers
as the lettre de forme. 2 This was the standard or
formal letter which was preferred for all the care-
fully written books. The other style, the round
l " So much beauty or dignity Politioribus eharacterum typis."
was supposed to be inherent in
this distortion of the alphabet,
that a treatise of one of the
schoolmen, printed at Venice by
Giov. di Colonna and J. Man-
then, bears with it this com-
mendation, that it is executed
mblimi liter arum effigie ; and the
''Conciliator Medicin®" of the
year 1483 has this subscription,
charactere jucundissimo M. Jo-
annis Herbort Alemanni, cujus
vis et ingenium facile superemi-
nent omnes. In 1525 Nicolas
Prevost at Paris writes of a
Gothic impression, Opus pulchro
literarum charactere politissi-
tnutn. Another French printer
of 1520 commends his book as
Greswell, "Annals of Parisian
Typography," p. 14. London,
1818.
2 The "Bible of Forty-two
Lines," supposed to have been
printed before 1455 by Guten-
berg of Mentz; the " Psalter"
of 1457, printed by Fust and
Schoeffer of Mentz; the small
books attributed by some to Cos-
ter of Haarlem between 1423
and 1440, and by others to some
unknown printer of the Nether-
lands before 1476; the "Books
of Hours " and many other books
of merit of the early French
printers, are in different sizes
and fashions of the lettre de
forme.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
294 Pointed Black and Bound Black
gothic, is known as the lettre de somme, 1 and it
was the style most approved for ordinary books.
Lettre de forme. Lettre de somme.
Modern imitations of early styles of black-letter.
The form of black-letter most approved by Eng-
lish readers is the pointed form, which Blades says
liflh * s mo ^ e ^ e( ^ on ^ e lower-case letters of
ng the "Bible of Forty-two Lines." 2 Al-
though it has been supplanted as a text-letter by
the roman, it is so identified with early English
printing that it fairly deserves its generally ac-
cepted name of Old English. The specimen on
pica body (page 295) was cast from matrices sunk
in the early part of the sixteenth century, probably
in Rouen, France, whose type-founders then sup-
plied England with its best types. The larger
bodies are old, but of later date. The body-marks
of this style are thick, and the characters are so
1 The " Letters of Indulgence " Even in Italy, Nicholas Jenson.
of 1453 and 1454, and the "Ca- after his introduction of roman
tholicon " of 1460, attributed to types, found it expedient to print
Gutenberg, as well as the Latin books in this round gothic to
"Bible of 1462 "printed by Peter suit the tastes of unscholarly
Schoeffer, are in the lettre de book-buyers.
somme. The ordinary reader of 2 This form was sparingly used
the sixteenth century preferred by Caxton between 1479 and
this style to the pointed gothic 1483, but always with capitals
and to the roman character, in the Flemish style.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Pointed Black-letter 295
closely fitted that it well deserves the name of
black. Some of the capitals (not in the Flemish
but in the French style) are uncouth, but the gen-
eral effect of a printed page is pleasing. It is fre-
quently selected? for lines or words of prominence
by lawyers, and for a formal text by ecclesiastics.
The official copy of English statute law continues
to be printed in this early style of black-letter.
£} g>ptrttuel or Cetnporei
to bpc onp $pc£ of ttoo or tfjrce corneous
ration of £aitTburt alfe eirorpnteb after
tljr forme of ttjie peef ct ttettrc, tofficli
fcen tori ano truip correct late tjpm come
to 3@eftmone(ter, in to tfje 3tlmoncfrpc,
at tip fteeo $afe> ano Ije u)al Ijaue tfjem
<(Boob Ctjcpc. «#•«#• £>upplino ftet ceoula.
Real Old English on pica and larger bodies, leaded.
Sir Charles Reed's Sons, London.
Pickering selected it for his Victorian edition of
the "Book of Common Prayer." Moxon com-
mends it as a style that should be in the stock of
Digitized by (jOOQlC
296 Flemish Black-letter
every master printer. It is more in fashion now
than it has been at any time during the past cen-
tury, for the stringent rule that excludes almost
every other style from the standard book tolerates
and often commends the occasional employment
of a good form of black-letter.
For the facsimile reprinting of fifteenth-century
books, abbreviations on pica body have been pro-
vided, but they are not made for the larger bodies.
Strictly German styles of black-letter have never
been used for book-texts at any period by English
publishers. In the beginning English
Old Flemish r . ,. , , , , , , ,. f , r_
publishers had to buy then* best types
from foreign founders, and sometimes to get books
made by foreign printers, but they never selected
the fractur, schwabacher, German text, or any of
(C&eofcone ffiooo, a German fcorn
<3' tfoe Citp of Cologne,
(Cbat fe tfyrf curiourf ^oofc toto print,
Co an Mtn mafctfc hnoton.
Xnb W 0000 partner (C&omarf $unt?,
Kn gngtifrman foe toarf.
Boto aid tbem l^eanen! tfcat tbepmaj?
Venetian &kifl jnirparfrf .
Black-letter in the Flemish style on brevier body, solid.
Sir Charles Reed's Sons.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Flemish Grosse Bdtarde 297
the German styles. When English printers could
not buy from the type-founders of Prance, they
went to those of the Low Countries. The illustra-
tion on the previous page shows an early form of
English black-letter with some Flemish manner-
isms of the sixteenth century. In the modern form
of Flemish black-letter these peculiarities are re-
tained. It will be noticed that it is an entirely
distinct style, and that it seriously differs from
the accepted fashion of German text-letter.
The book in which the English language was
first printed 1 is of another Flemish style, made
after the design of some unknown The Flemish
copyist, who wrote with a free, flour- grosse batarde
ishing hand. Although printed in English, it was
not printed on English soil. The type first used by
Caxton in England, and probably made in Bruges,
was of the same style, but Blades describes it as
"more dashing, picturesque and elaborate." This
style was then known in France as the grosse bd-
tarde. It does not appear to have been much
liked by English readers, for Caxton did not use
it exclusively, and it was not renewed by his suc-
l The " Recuyell of the His- printed before 1474 by Caxton at
toryesof Troye." Translated in the monastery of Weidenbach,
1469-1471, but without place or near Cologne, where Caxton and
date. According to Blades this Mansion were acquiring their
book was printed by William knowledge of typography. It is
Caxton about 1474, and probably a style of type not at all English,
in the printing-house of Colard " Lettres d'un bibliographe,"
Mansion at Bruges. Accord- quatrieme serie, pp. 13-30. 8vo.
ing to J. P. A. Madden, it was Paris, 1875.
38
Digitized by VaOOQlC
298 CaxtorHs Favorite Character
cessors. After long neglect it was revived in 1855
by Vincent Figgins of London for a facsimile edi-
tion of Caxton's "Game and Playe of the Chesse."
ti0*0tb+ but %otot Jfofetotfc a*
n%$t <x$ 3 c*n wg topge+toWe
wa e in ©ufcfc, Anb 8g meTOffta Carton
it dneftrf eb in to f$i* tube 4* egmpfe <B>ng;
fgeefl in fMBeg of TJJeefcnoneetre. Sen?
seeded f0e uj oage ofJfrgM 0e gere of our feoro
.<&.€Ct.&xm. frtfrm eereof f0e($egneof
dtgnse (gotwaro f 0e iiti« gere <gnoef$ 1 0e
inert orge of (gegnard f 0e Sot.
Old Flemish black used by Cazton.
It has since been cut by other English or German
founders in many sizes, from nonpareil to six-line
pica. Printers have reinstated it as a valuable
Qt Qgf © Q* (m (p (£ Z H)
letter for the reprints of early English or Flemish
books, and it is freely used for mottos, quotations,
and for title headings in catalogues of books.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Bound Black-letter 299
The same desire for novelty has led to the re-
vival of the old fashion of round gothic, or lettre
de somme, which now appears as a more oid black, or
carefully cut letter, under the name of ^^^ «° me
old black. It seems to be a careful reproduction
of a style of letter preferred by many Spanish
printers of the fifteenth century. It is now made
in a full series of sizes, from nonpareil to eight-
jf ue impressa la pre*
sente Carta be IRelacion
en la imperial Ciubab be
Golebo por (Bafpar be avtla, Hcabo
fe a ve\mte Mae bel mee be ©ctu*
bre. Hno bel nadmiento be nuef-
tro faluabor 3efu Cbrifto be mil i
qutntentoe i \> ve^nte dnco anoe.
Old black on pica and double small-pica bodies.
line pica, but all of them are incompletely provided
with abbreviating characters. The round lower-
case letters have unusual height; the ascenders,
descenders, and capitals are correspondingly short-
ened. It is a useful letter for reprints of early
books, and is frequently selected for headings or
display lines in the advertisements of publishers.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
300
Black of Sixteenth Century
For more than three centuries English type-
founders adhered with great tenacity to the form
of pointed black that had been provided for them
by the early French and Flemish founders. The
model letters drawn by Moxon in 1676 for his
"Rules of the Three Orders of Print Letters*
From Moxon's "Mechanick Exercises
show no important departure from those used by
Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde. Nor was any
change made by English founders of the seven-
teenth or eighteenth century that would justify
Wqi t»l? ano btofteo Dottour &aj?nt 3lerom
*aptb tft?0 3uctor?te, SDo altoepe tfomme #ooo
Werfte to rtjcnoe rtjat rtje SDrupl fpnue tbe not
i^Dle* &n» tlje lyol? Dottour £>amt auttpn
«n?tt) in tbe Boob oftfie labour of spontt* tt)at
no span &tronge or SPpgSW? to ILaboute oug&t
to be f^e^4^4^^*§^«s-^ <**fe» x^em*.
Old English black of the sixteenth century, leaded.
Sir Charles Reed's Sons.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Fat-faced Black
301
the naming of any one of their new cuts as that of
a distinct style.
The first novelty attempted in the form of black-
letter was that of the fat-faced black, which ap-
peared at or near the beginning of this Fat-faced
century when the fat-faced romans were wack-ietter
popular. Hansard 1 denounced it as "a fanciful
but ridiculous innovation "; Dibdin sneered at it
as "gouty and frightful"; but these censures did
IflJKE* tet of aouTrou] atrti mans
Ottjtr Dartip \tnn litetfUfltttetjrtr
Printers atropt tljat iFt f ot)tfttl t
ftottts, Bteproportfonatr, isse*
Sfatractfttfl antr Jraste^reboitfnjj form of
iSiarft^ietter too ftequentlg btafiiir on ttje
iFrontfepCece* of t)fa Boofta? Het tie
tiStyont of 829fintttn tre SZSortre Jaunt t)fm
till fte aftairtroii ft. 2
Fat-faced black on pica and long-primer bodies.
1 " As a British classic type, it
[Old English] must be regarded
with veneration in England, as
the character in which Wynkyn
de Worde . . . first exercised
the art, and therefore I shall
include Blacks in the Synopsis ;
but studiously abstaining from
mixing in the list the modern
fanciful (but ridiculous) inno-
vations, only called Blacks from
the quantity of ink they are ca-
pable of carrying." Hansard,
"Typographia," p. 404.
2 Dibdin, ' ' Bibliographical De-
cameron," ii, 407.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
302 Modem French Black-letter
not prevent its employment. Many of the larger
foundries made it in a full series of sizes from
brevier to six-line pica. For thirty years or more
it was preferred by printers to the older form,
which was set aside as uncouth and obsolete.
The designers of the early forms of black-letter
avoided hair-lines; the designer of the fat-faced
black studiously tried to introduce them in places
where they were not needed. He also attempted
to make the stems of some of the capitals conform
to the shape of the roman capital. These changes
are no improvement on the old models.
In France and Germany these fat-faced blacks
were never as popular as they were in England.
French form of The continental founders modernized
biack-ietter the early forms in another direction.
This is the style now preferred in France, which
has also been accepted to some extent in England
and the United States, as a proper style for lines
of display in good work. At its introduction it
had the merit of novelty, but a modern reader
©f making mang Books
tljereisnotlfrio; ana mud) 0tubj)
is a kOearinees of tlje Jfleel). $ $
A French black-letter of modern cut.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
German Styles of Black-letter 303
fails to see in it any point of superiority when
put in comparison with the English black-letter
of the sixteenth century; yet it has the negative
merit of few serifs at the angles. Unfortunately
it has not been made in a full series of sizes.
Neither the precise pointed gothic nor the more
careless round gothic seems to have been entirely
acceptable to the uncritical German Fracturand
reader of the fifteenth century. There schwabacher
was a desire for types that should be more careless
and unconventional, in imitation of the letters of
Fractur.
Schwabacher.
a hasty manuscript. A few of the eccentric styles
of black-letter then in fashion were reproduced, of
which three still retain their old popularity— the
fractur, the schwabacher, and the German text. 1
l The broad-faced style of the
schwabacher was first made in
a very rude form by Rewichs of
Mentz, in I486, although some
of its peculiar characters are
noticeable in the types of Peter
Schoeffer. The slender and ex-
tremely condensed fractur first
appeared in a good form in the
"Theuerdank" of Hans Schoen-
sperger, Nuremberg, 1517. The
text was adorned with flourished
initials which have served as the
models for modern German text.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
304 Fractur and Schwabacher
The fractur is still the preferred text-letter for
the newspapers and ordinary books of Germany.
For scientific books the antiqua or roman is usu-
ally selected, and it is also more frequently used
for the letters of coins, medals, and sign-boards.
Snberroetyfuug ber 9ftef[ung, nut bcm Bfrcfel
mtb rtcfytfcfyetyt, in Sinien dbntn sit gcmfcen
Sorporen, burd) Sllbrecfyt Diirer jufamen ge*
jogen, m burd) \n felbd nun alien funfi liefer
fyaknben in true! gebetu 1538*
Fractur on pica body, leaded.
George Brace's Son & Co.
The schwabacher is a rounder, clearer, and sim-
pler form, largely used for display, and to some
extent as a text-letter. The German-text, once
popular as a display letter in book titles, is now
little used, and only in ornamental job printing.
3cfy bin gefefyief et mit ber press,
So icfy auff trag ben ^irniss ress ;
So balb mein Dienr oen Bengel $xd t
So ift ein Bogn papY rs gebrucft.
I}ans Sacfys.
Schwabacher on pica body, solid.
James Conner's Sons.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
German-text and Composite 305
German founders have devised other forms of
black-letter, which are occasionally seen in Ger-
u $mtl\tfy\ttn mb tin* itxU
fov $e*tf}icfjUn U*loU\t§tn
*tr*i)t faun nnb fjotfjbt-
timittn fytbs mb f§|tt-
Uv* fjm ^twvbanntbf}*.
Modern German-text.
George Bruce's Son & Co.
man books. Some of them have been reproduced
by our American founders, but only after they
have been divested of most of their unacceptable
German mannerisms. The composite, Teutonic,
ScrtptOrscrtpstsstt
ScnC; JMtUS, si potutsset
Composite.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
306 Borussian
and Borussian are freely accepted by American
printers as useful text-letters or display letters
for legal formularies. At least a score of distinct
styles can be seen in the specimen books of the
large German foundries, most of them cut in a
full series of sizes. Many are admirably drawn
€hii Scripsit Scripta
Sua 3Wra git Uencclicta.
Borussian of bold-face.
and engraved, but they are put aside by American
founders as too fantastic for common readers ; yet
they are not more fantastic than many black-let-
ters of American origin.
During the past thirty years, American type-
founders have devised many entirely new forms
Jfteading itialetH a #uff Han,
fionfctence a Jleadg Man,
rittng an (kad Man.
Borussian of light-face.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
American Styles of Black 307
of black-letter or pointed text. Card text, Anglo-
saxon, Franklin, medieval text, fancy text, title
text, eureka text, scribe text, modern text, Italian
text, sloping black, expanded black, are the names
©raffg men (Slaniemn J£>tubie&;
-Simple men Itfibmive ihem ;
"2S5ise men TDt&e ihem.
Teutonic on english body,
of but a few of the novelties designed for job
printers. Many of these styles are varied by orna-
mental outlines, or by ruled cross-lines, or shades,
or inlays. All have been made in the lithographic
or the copperplate style, with very sharp and long
hair-lines, most of them with serifs bristling on
every angle. Although of simpler form than the
German novelties, their overworked delicacy and
refinement of cut, and their excess of flourish and
ornament, make them so feeble and ineffective
that they are properly excluded from book-work.
Exception to this general condemnation may
be made in favor of a few new styles. The Au-
gustan black, of as light face as the weakness of
ordinary roman, is a remarkably grace- new 8 *y le8
ful letter. The same praise must be given to the
condensed blacks of light-face and of bold-face.
Tested by mechanical standards, they seem fault-
less in design, spacing, engraving, and fitting-up.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
308 Weakness of Modern Styles
The characters, harmonious in every combination,
impress the reader with their honest, painstaking
workmanship. Yet they are thoroughly feminine
in effect — so made by over-refinement in cutting,
and by the needless decorations of flourished serifs
fetter of tfjia ad [Jfai-fact] {rcs fallen fjas
probablg ari&en from Ikgligma, $natt*n-
lion anb^Rantof Caste. . . . Jftisfciflr-
atlt to mtoafigate anb gpmfg % qualities
tojjkfr *onaiitet* §*awig: bnt Jfattuss
oetmg to ^rafcrje fcetn fonsibxreir bg % $et-
ter-fonnbers as an abajaaf e Snbstitnte for
all suxjj qualities. 1 »^«^^o^«^^o^^*#i
Augustan black on pica and double-pica bodies.
George Brace's Son & Co.
and hair-lines. One has but to contrast them with
the sturdy styles of the old printers to understand
why men of letters keep them out of standard
books. When these blacks are selected for the
headings of a chapter, or for the running-title,
their incongruity with the roman text is startling.
l Hansard, " Typographic* p. 617.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Obscurity of New Styles 309
{fortunate would it t», am m *m %n-
tQ gta* and £i*aiflfct £teofce0, ttrf $0fate t Saw*
S«wlt0 t pgata*** an4 ItttotmittjM Ipettew, a** well
W ttitf ttmttmetaMe ^bimixtioufit §toi* gtwktfi
crawls tfaiMe, wtiitetf with ®totfe <Sta*fc aad ite
£t*afc0 and (Stowatttttf, wm ttttiwlg to rtteaweat,
a«^feft0t»l8aiJt&e®sire0{air<rt0dwhettall^attt-
i«a bad wrath) pm^hed t iajetta* witft &M& £wt
Condensed black of bold-face on long-primer body.
George Bruee's Son & Co.
This mischievous tendency to over-refinement
in the designing of types has effectually spoiled
and kept out of general use two char- obscurity of
acteristic styles of early black-letter, church text
The church text, as one may still see it upon in-
scriptions on tombs and tablets in some of the old
English and German churches, is an ecclesiastic
letter of marked grace. In the types here shown,
the general form is above reproach, for every let-
ter has been carefully studied from good models.
In these model letters on the stone or in the brass
hair-lines were carefully subdued, but in the type
the hair-lines and the knobby serifs have been
thrust in where they were not needed. The re-
sult is disappointing, for the strong character of
i Silvestre, 4 ' Universal Palroo- erick Madden, vol. ii, p. 652. 8vo.
graph y , " translation of Sir Fred- Lon don, 1 849.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
310 Church Text and Chapel Text
the letter has been destroyed by the addition of
these feminine graces. Churchmen who know and
esteem this letter for its appropriateness in eccle-
siastic work refuse to nse it, condemning it for
the faults of delicacy and obscurity.
Church text on canon and smaller bodies.
Sir Charles Heed's Sons.
The chapel text is a modern variation of the old
church text. It is not so condensed, and should
weakness of be more easily read. The capitals are
ohapei text n0 ^ unpleasantly ornamented, for the
decorative lines are entirely inside of the letter
proper, leaving a sharp and clear outline. This
feature should make the capitals useful for the
rubrics of liturgical work, but the stems of the
capitals, although without hair-lines, are too thin
to retain the amount of color that is needed for a
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Chapel Text and Saxon 311
rubric. In the lower-case the punch-cutter has
practically conjoined all the letters with angular
knobs or serifs where they are not needed, by try-
ing to make the short letters line at the top as
well as at the bottom. The entirely unnecessary
graces of occasional flourishes, and pendants, and
over-sharp hair-lines, have made the weak and
obscure lower-case a bad mate for the capitals.
Difficult to read in black ink, it becomes almost
unreadable, certainly ineffective, when printed in
the prescribed scarlet red. Therefore the church-
man neglects it, preferring the old form of black-
letter, not for the uncouthness of its capitals, but
for its legibility, since the broader surface of the
character permits it to be easily read, even when
printed in the palest of scarlet.
Chapel text.
The Saxon is another example of the danger of
emasculating a strong letter. The delicate finials
and interlaced lines of this style, as they g x n bl k
may be seen in early manuscripts, did
not weaken but intensified the strength of the
Saxon style, for these finials and interfacings were
Digitized by V3OOQLC
312
Saxon and Anglo-black
usually in pale color, and were a contrast to the
stronger lines or stems of the letter. When cut
in outline these ornaments become too prominent,
and the strength of the character is destroyed.
Ornamented Saxon on meridian body.
The designer of the Anglo-black has given a
good imitation of an incised letter, in the gothic
style, cut in stone by different blows of
the chisel. It has no beauty of form to
recommend it, but is an appropriate letter for the
representation of inscriptions on tombstones.
Anglo-black
Johnnie iCarnegie lais heer,
De$cen6it of A6am an& Eue,
iSif ony can gang hieher,
3'$e milling gie him leue.
Anglo-black on pica body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Medieval 313
The medieval, although not in the pointed style,
is usually classed with black-letter. It is admi-
rably adapted for rubrication, but its use Medieval
in that field is limited, for it is made in blaok
three sizes only. The capitals seem to be the mod-
ification of a mongrel type first made by William
Le Rouge of Paris in 1512, as a rival to italic. The
I^FfngitFobJPrFHum;
Bite JPflnpFPqnF \foniff :
Ijot %ns 6if trflFnx
ftfnititnp&FFFJBFFiiL
Medieval on meridian and double smaU-pica bodies.
broad Byzantine capitals were bad mates for the
condensed lower-case.
Many meritorious novelties in black-letter have
been introduced recently by the type-founders of
Germany, but the relatively limited use of the
German character in this country does not allow
here any more than respectful mention.
40
Digitized by V3OOQLC
314 The Bradley Series
A recent novelty in black-letter is the bold-face
designed by Mr. Will H. Bradley, which has been
introduced to the printing trade by the American
Type Founders Company in eight sizes, ranging
from 6-point to 48-point, under the name of the
Bradley series. The series first made has remark-
ably bold letters, with peculiarities of form never
before attempted. Among job printers, and to
some extent with advertisers, the Bradley is rated
as a valuable type for display.
Co tbe Reader. Olbo faultctb not,
liuetb not; who mendetb faults is
commended: the Printer bath
faulted a little * It may be the Au-
thor oversized more. Cby paine
(Reader) is the leaste ; Chen erre
not thou most by misconstruing or
by sbarpe censuring ; lest tbou be
more uncharitable tban either of
them batb been beedlesse: Sod
amend and guide us all. <** <*?
Robartes on Tythes, 4to, Cambridge, 1613.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
XI
Gothic
i^OTHIC is a misleading name. Or-
dinary readers and book -collectors
give it to all the older forms of black-
letter, but American type-founders
apply it to a sturdy type that has
neither serif nor hair-line. The gothic of the type-
founder was not derived from black-let- The simplest
ter, and has no resemblance to it. Its formof type
capitals are a rude imitation of the classical Greek
and Roman lapidary character. Probably it was
called gothic because the style first put in type was
as bold and black as that of the black-letter gothic
manuscript. Some English type-founders call it
sans-serif, but others call it grotesque and also
gothic.
Of all styles this is the plainest. It has no use-
less lines ; in its regular or ordinary shape, each
character is distinct, and not to be mistaken for
315
Digitized by VaOOQlC
316 Gothic a Preferred Style
any other. For this reason it is the style selected
for the raised letters that are made for the blind,
to be read by the sense of touch. Many adverti-
A LIGHTER FACE OF GOTHIC
provided with irregularfigures of old-style
No. 1.
A GOTHIC OF MEDIUM FACE
condensed and with a full lower-case
No. 2.
BOLD-FACE GOTHIC
with a rugged lower-case
No. 3.
A GOTHIC NOT SO BLACK
with bold and distinct lower-case
No. *.
AN EXTENDED GOTHIC
lower-case and figures
Five styles of gothic on pica body.
sers prefer it over all other styles for the purpose
of bold display. Many printers prefer it for its
greater durability : it has no serifs to be bruised,
and no hair-lines to be gapped.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Defects of the Gothic Style 317
The bold-face gothic, No. 3 of the illustration
(on page 316), appears to best advantage in the
larger sizes. When the body is small, the thicker
lines occupy too much of the face, and letters like
E, A, F, 8, a, e, 8, and indeed all characters with
a central crossing line, have too little relief of
interior white space.
The medium face, No. 4, and the lighter face,
No. 2, are much more readable, and are preferred
for display.
The old-style figures of the lighter face No. 1
are often selected for tables in which the greatest
distinctness is desired.
The extended gothic, No. 5, also has old-style
figures, but its lower-case characters are not so
popular. Nor can its capitals be used effectively
without a special and irregular spacing between
single letters. Where letters with perpendicular
lines like those in HIM meet, one has to put
spaces between to keep them apart at proper dis-
tance. When letters with angled lines like LAY
meet, an awkward gap of white space appears be-
tween these irregular letters, which should compel
the compositor to give a wider spacing to all other
letters in the line. 1 Gothic calls for more care in
spacing than any other style.
1 Although this remark can serifs like those of the Elzevir,
be applied to all letters, even to It is probable that the long serif
roman and italic, it is especially first made by Jaugeon of Paris
applicable to gothic, and to any was invented to conceal or mod-
style that has short and stubby if y this blemish.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
318 Gothics of Condensed Shape
The absence of projecting serifs in the gothic
style allows its letters to be compressed with but
a moderate loss of readability, as may be seen in
A CONDENSED GOTHIC BOLD-FACE
lower-case with short descenders
No. 6.
THIS GOTHIC CONDENSED
is of a lighter face and on a wider set
No. 7.
GOTHIC CONDENSED. NO LOWER-CASE
No. 8.
A PICA GOTHIC, EXTRA CONDENSED AND OF A VERY FLIMSY FACE
in which compression has been made at the eipense of legibility
No. 9.
PICA GOTHIC CONDENSED HAIR-LINE
Five styles of gothic condensed on pica body.
three of the preceding illustrations. The extra
condensed gothics and the hair-line gothics on the
smaller bodies are a severe strain on eyesight.
The merit of the gothic character is largely in
the simplicity and readability of its capitals, but
the lower-case sorts furnished with many styles
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Usefulness of Lining Gothics 319
are often found unsatisfactory, for they are not as
symmetrical as the capitals, nor are they always
as distinct. There are publishers who forbid the
use of gothic if they cannot have letters in cap-
itals only. Yet those who do use capitals only
soon find an unpleasing monotony in a succession
of lines of gothic capitals all of uniform height.
Nor are successive lines of gothic capitals neces-
sarily distinct because the face is bold and black.
If the lines are not widely leaded, and if meeting
letters with parallel lines are not intelligently
spaced, the composition will be huddled and ob-
scure : it will not be as readable as lines that are
composed in plain roman capitals.
To enable the compositor to give a proper
prominence to special letters or words, type-foun-
ders now cast three or more faces of the Ugefulneg ' g
smaller bodies of gothic capitals on one of lining
body, and adjust all the faces on one line. & otniC8
This permits the compositor to make a proper
distinction of selected words and letters by a
judicious use of large and small capitals. The dif-
ferent faces assist in justification and in the
making of lines of even length. These combined
faces are sold in series, and are known as lin-
ing gothics. They are made of light-face and of
bold-face, and in a backslope form, not only for
small but for large bodies. The bodies preferred
by job printers are those of the smaller sizes.
These lining gothics have been found most use-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
320 Illustrations of Lining Gothics
ful in the composition of panels and headings.
They are nsed also for the legend line of illustra-
tions in places where the smaller sizes of small
capitals are rejected as deficient in readability.
VKCtS Mtt. PVJ1 OH UOHPMtt.\\- ^OW, KHO UMJt 10 UHt SO 1HM
"Itttftt SHKVA. *l HO S?tC\k\- i\iSl\7\0M\0H 0? -\Ht \>\f f t*t*T ?KCtS.
Four faces.
ESTIENNE, .est known
to English readers by the
name or STEPHENS, is
the Family Name or many
eminentFrench Printers.
HENRY, firstofthe name,
WAS A PRINTER IN PARIS
FROM 1496 TO 1520.
FRANCIS I, SON OF HENRY.
DIED IN PARIS, 1550.
ROBERT I, son of henry,
printed in Paris and Ge-
neva FROM 1526 to 1529.
CHARLES I, son of henry,
PRINTEDIN PARISFROM1536
to 1550.
HENRY II, SON OF ROBERT
I, PRINTED IN GENEVA FROM
1554 to 1598.
ROBERT II, son of Robert
I, PRINTED IN PARIS, AND
DIED THERE IN 1588.
Five faces.
OTHER ESTIENNES, re.t
KNOWN TO ENGLISH READERS RY THE
name op STEPHENS:
FRANCIS II, son op rorert i, was a
PRINTER AND PUBLISHER AT GENEVA
FROM 1562 TO 1M2.
paul, ron of henry ii, printed in
Geneva, and died there in ibm.
joseph, son op henry ii, printed in
Geneva, and died there in iw7.
GERVAIS, and ADRIEN, sons op
francis ii, printed in Paris : thcir
DATES OF DEATH ARE UNKNOWN.
ANTOINE, son of paul, printed in
Paris: his date of death is unknown.
henry iii, son of antoine, was a
printer in Paris in is46.
ROBERT III, son of rorert ii, was a
printer in Paris in isw, and the
last eminent master-printer of
the family.
Four faces.
Three styles of lining gothie on nonpareil body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Eccentric Styles of Gothic 321
Gothic types are too simple in form to allow of
much ornamentation, but some attempts have been
made to give grace to their simple and severe
lines, as may be seen in the following illustrations :
ECCENTRIC IJSI CjfcPIT>LS
A GOTHIC WITH SMALL CAPITALS
A GOTHIC CONDENSED AND ORNAMENTED
with very short serifs, after the latiij model
The eccentric capitals of the bolder style have
some value in lines of display, but for ordinary
work their added quirks are positive disfigure-
ments; yet this face, as well as the gothic of
lighter face with small capitals, is provided with
one set of plain and another of eccentric letters.
The gothic condensed and ornamented has very
short serifs, and should be classed as a variety of
the so-called latin face. Its slight degree of deco-
ration is most noticeable in the capitals. The
lower-case has little irregularity. It is a readable
type, and is freely used as a text-letter in job-work.
Gothics of inclined form are made by many
founders, and are usually named gothic italic.
For advertising purposes a bold-face like that
41
Digitized by VaOOQlC
322 Inclined Gothics
of the first illustration on this page is preferred.
The lighter face that follows, equally close as to
set, moderately condensed, and with some old-style
THIS GOTHIC ITALIC CONDENSED
Is of bold-face, is close-set, and very readable
Gothic italic condensed on long-primer body.
features, is a more popular style. It is one of the
most readable of condensed letters, and is fre-
quently selected by job printers for a text-letter.
HENRI DIDOT, a son of Pierre Frangois,
was born 15th July, 1765, and died in 1852.
A t the age of sixty -nine he cut the punches
for his " microscopique" type on the body
of two and one-half points Didot, or about
twenty -five lines to the American inch.
Gothic italic condensed on long-primer body, double leaded.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
XII
Antique Types, Runic, Celtic, and Italian
ANTIQUE differs from roman in the
boldness of its lines: stem, serif,
and so-called hair-line are always
of greater thickness. The general
effect of a composition in this style
is that of blackness and squareness. As first made,
antique was provided with lines that were too thick
and counters too narrow, and the over- The earliest
hang of its descending letters was a bad form of bow
fault. It was introduced at a time when msplay type
all forms of f oman text-letter were made feeble with
protracted hair-lines and frail serifs after the pre-
vailing French fashion. The intent of the designer
was to produce, for purposes of display, a bolder
style that should be as distinct and easily read as
that of the old lapidary characters. For this reason
it was called antique by some founders and egyptian
323
Digitized by V3OOQLC
324 Styles of Antique
AN EARLY ANTIQUE
probably cut before 1820
No. 1.
CAST BY GEORGE BRUCE
as a substitute for the bold-face
No. 2.
THE DORIC ANTIQUE
has features of roman
No. 3.
THE IONIC ANTIQUE
has large face, open counters
No. 4.
THE LIGHT-FACE ANTIQUE
is not much bolder than roman
No. 5.
THE EXPANDED ANTIQUE
has no overhanging descenders
No. 6.
Six faces of antique on pica body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Old-style and Doric Antiques 325
by others. Copies or imitations of this over-black
style are to be found in the specimen books of
many American founders. For some years it was
the most pppular of display types, but the smaller
sizes are now out of fashion, for they have been
supplanted by others of neater cut. The over-black
style is shown on page 324 as specimen No. 1.
BOOKS ARE TEACHERS
whose instructions are unaccom-
panied by blows or harsh words,
and who demand neither food nor
wages. You visit them, and they
are alert ; if you want them, they
do not secrete themselves ; nor do
they ridicule your ignorance, be it
ever so gross. Richard de Bury.
Old-style antique on pica body.
Specimen No. 2 is of a style that is not yet out
of fashion. The smaller sizes have been discarded,
but the larger sizes are popular.
Specimen No. 3, usually called doric, is really a
combination of a thick-faced roman and antique.
This face, as well as the runic and Celtic of the
next page, lacks the square serif which is the
characteristic of a strict antique.
Digitized by CjOOQLC
326 Celtics and Bunics
Specimen No. 4 is often named ionic. It has
some of tfye roundness of the doric style, but is of
a lighter face and is not expanded.
Old-style peculiarities have been attached to the
antique style. The illustration on the previous
page is of medium boldness, but lighter and bolder
faces are also made. Old-style antique is the pre-
ferred letter for the side heads or displayed words
of a text in old-style roman.
The lightest and most open form of the antique
style is usually known by the name of Celtic. The
first illustration below is of a face made in cap-
itals only. Authors and publishers sometimes
A CELTIC OF LIGHT FACE
No. 7, on long-primer body.
BROAD-FACED CELTIC
■with lower-ease complete
No. 8, on pica body.
A RUNIC OF CONDENSED FORM
No. 9, on pica body.
RUNIC OF SQUARE FORM
has crescent-shaped serifs
No. 10, on pica body.
Celtics and Bunios.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Other Faces of Antique 327
select it for the title-pages of books in preference
to the ordinary form of two-line roman.
Another style of Celtic is slightly expanded, and
is provided with lower-case characters.
Runic is the name given to another style of an-
tique of light-face, of condensed form, with pointed
serifs, and often without lower-case characters.
Another style of runic is made with all lower-
case characters, but of slightly expanded form and
with the peculiarity of crescent-shaped serifs.
Another style, of bolder face, condensed, and
with serifs so short and pointed that it might be
classified among gothics, is also known as runic.
THIS IS RUNIC OF BOLDER FACE
condensed, with lower-case sorts
The square form of the runic style is usually
known by the name of latin.
Other styles of antique are provided by founders,
but most of them have peculiarities too trivial to
require special illustration. The modern antique,
which is but slightly condensed, with a pointed and
strongly bracketed or club-footed serif, is perhaps
the one with most individuality. The latin, on the
contrary, is slightly expanded, and has serifs even
shorter and feebler than those of roman — so short
that it might fairly be called a variety of gothic.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
328 Latin Antique
Other forms of antique, such as geometric, tus-
can, concave, 1 etc., and indeed all forms with very
strong mannerisms or of eccentric shape, need no
BOOKS AND FURNITURE.
Books are not made for fur-
niture, but nothing else so
beautifully furnishes a house.
Give us the home furnished
with books rather than with
furniture. Both if you can,
but books at any rate. !*«**.
Latin antique.
illustration here, for they cannot be regarded as
plain types. They are never selected by printers
of good taste for use in standard books, and they
are rarely allowed in advertisements. Antiques of
small size, of plain form, and of not too bold face,
are occasionally selected for texts.
Many varieties of antique condensed are made.
The earlier and bolder styles, with flat or unbrack-
1 It may be necessary to repeat Sometimes the same face has a
here the caution given on a pre- different name given to it by
vious page, that the same name each of three or more founders,
is not always given to the same While the names here given are
face or cut of letter. What one not universally accepted, they
founder names Celtic, another are believed to be those most
calls romanesque ; one calls cale- frequently used for the respec-
douian what another calls ionic, tive styles.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Cushing Old-style Antique 329
eted serifs, and with kerned descenders, are now
used only in the form of capitals and figures:
ANTIQUE C0NDENSED,0F OLD FORM
with square and clean-angled serifs
No. ii, on pica body.
CONDENSED ANTIQUE OF CAPITAL8 ONLY
No. 12, on pica body.
A LIGHT ANTIQUE CONDENSED
of a larger and more open face
No. 13, on pica body.
Antique condensed.
The Cushing antique is a moderately condensed
form of the old-style antique character. Unlike
HORSES FIRST, BOOKS LAST.
I say first that we have despised lit-
erature. What do we, as a nation,
care about our books ? How much do
you think we spend altogether on
our libraries, public or private,as com-
pared with what we spend on horses ?
Ru8kin.
Cushing old-style antique on pica body.
42
Digitized by VaOOQlC
330 Antiques for Side Headings
other series of display letter, the Cushing style has
been cut for all bodies, including the so-called
irregular bodies of agate, minion, bourgeois, and
small-pica. This nicer graduation of sizes aug-
ments its usefulness in books for which many
sizes of text and of display letter are needed. 1
THE BASKERVILLE, OS THE LATIN CONDENSED, is
a most useful letter : bold, black, condensed, readable
No. 14, on pica body.
A more useful letter for side headings or for
bold display in the text is a slightly condensed
antique of the old form, with flat, unbracketed
serifs, of close set and marked compactness.
THIS ANTIQUE CONDENSED is a valuable dis-
play type, often used FOB THE SIDE HEADINGS
of catalogues and for other emphatic words in a text
No. 15, on brevier body.
1 Display letter is rarely made title, or gothic, in the text or as
for the irregular bodies of agate, side headings. To do this the
minion, bourgeois, and small- compositor has to justify the
pica. But there are many books smaller regular body in the text
in text-types of irregular bodies with thin leads or cardboard.
for which it is necessary to use It is always done at extra ex-
a display letter, like antique, pense and with bad effect
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Clarendon
331
PLATEN PRINTING MACHINE. A press that
gives instantaneous flat impression on every part of
the sheet by one movement of the platen. Many
forms are in use. The Adams Printing Machine of
large size is designed for book-work. The Gordon,
the Universal, and the Kidder are of small size,
made for job printing.
No. 16, on brevier body.
Clarendon, a popular variety of condensed an-
tique, was first made for the Clarendon Press of
Oxford, to serve as a display letter in a mass of
text-type, and for side headings in dictionaries or
books of reference. Its clearness in the smaller
sizes is seriously diminished by the unnecessary
boldness of its bracketed serif or turned-in corner.
A BOLD-FACED CLABENDON
with strong bracketed serifs
No. 17, on pica body.
THIS IS CONDENSED CLARENDON
of lighter face and with square angles
No. 18, on pica body.
The lighter and more condensed variety has no
descending kerns, but is not as popular.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
332 Extra Condensed Antiques
Extra condensed antiques of thick, medium, and
thin faces are made by many founders.
Grecian may be regarded as one of the many
varieties of the antique style. In 1840 it was a
popular face, but it is now almost out of use. Its
ANTIQUE EXTRA CONDENSED, VERY LIGHT FACE
made on brevier, long-primer, pica, and larger bodies
No. 19, on pica body.
THIS LIGHT FACE OF CAPITALS OET
No. 20, on great-primer body.
THIS LfllClil TYPE IS HJBE 8IEIGHT I0DIES
No. 21, on great-primer body.
marked peculiarity is the angling of those parts of
lines that are usually made with curves. It has a
lower-case alphabet only in the larger sizes.
Antique italics of the old-fashioned black-face
still have a place in some specimen books, but
they are out of style. A new form of light-face
with lower-case alphabet is a pleasing type.
ANTIQUE ITALIC
one of the oldest forms
No. 22, on pica body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Italian Antiques
333
Antique extended bears expansion without loss
of legibility much better than the expanded roman.
Italian may be classified as a variety of antique.
It is a fat-faced roman with transposed stem and
hair-line. " To be hated, it needs but to be seen." *
OLD IT.LLLL1T PACE
No. 24, on pica body.
MODERN ITALIAN CONDENSED
has nine sizes, nonpareil to canon
No. 25, on pica body.
ITALIAN ANTIQUE
provided with, lower-case
No. 26, on pica body.
1 " Oh! sacred shades of Moxon
and Van Dijke, of Baskerville
and Bodoni ! what would ye have
said of the typographic monstros-
ities here exhibited, which Fash-
ion in our age has produced ?
And those who follow, as many
years hence as you have pre-
ceded us, to what age or beings
will they ascribe the marks here
exhibited as a specimen ? " Han-
sard, " Typographia," p. 618.
Digitized by V3OOQIC
334 Antique as a Text for Books
Italian condensed is a more readable letter, for
the so-called hair-lines have ample thickness. The
thickening of the face is given mainly to the top
and the bottom lines.
Italian antique is of similar design, but it is
slightly expanded and of bolder face.
The antique style of type is frequently used in
place of roman by job printers, who find it more
small types e ^ eG ^ ye ^ or display work, and espe-
oftenneed a cially for single lines that are printed in
bolder face co i ore( i jut. The weakness of our pres-
ent fashions of roman is most painfully illustrated
when roman types are printed in a scarlet red
or an ultramarine blue. The modern method
of printing on dry polished paper, too often with
weak impression and deficient ink, makes the print
hard to read, even when the ink selected is black.
DR. JAVAL ON THE EVOLUTION OF TYPOGRAPHY. There are
Ave important methods of increasing the quantity of matter contained
in a page »f prescribed size, viz. : 1, to take out the leads ; 2, to give
a closer set to each letter; 3, to compress or condense each letter so
that more letters will come in one line; 4, to put the letters on a smaller
body; 5, to cut down the height of long letters and put all on a
smaller body. . . . The form of type shown in this paragraph seems
to approach the conditions we have named [readability with com-
pactness] more closely than any other type in regular use by the print-
ing trade. When types shall be made to conform still more closely to
these conditions they will be well fitted for readable impressions.
No. 27, on corps 5.
French publishers and authors who have satis-
factorily made use of Celtics and runics for title-
pages in red ink have been gradually led to try
the effect of a light-faced antique for the text
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Antique preferred to Roman 335
of small pages, which are always difficult to read
when printed upon dry calendered paper in a ro-
man letter of six points or smaller. The illus-
tration on the preceding page is one of a series
which is commended by Dr. Javal as a most read-
able cut of small text-type. It has been used with
good results by French publishers for little books
of poems in Editions de luxe, for this corps 5 is
decidedly more readable than ordinary roman
on corps 7. Although an improvement, the new
face is not beyond criticism : the wide set given
to each character does not make the composition
more readable. This style is made by the Turlot
Foundry on many larger bodies. The monotone
shown on a previous page is not quite as distinct,
but its lower-case letters are more pleasing to
American readers.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
XIII
The Classes and Prices of Printing-types
JLL type-founders agree upon the pro-
priety of different prices for the
leading classes of roman, display,
and ornamental. The line of sepa-
ration is not fully indicated by their
titles. In the class of roman are included italic
and the fractur of the Germans; in the class of
The three plain display are put antique, gothic,
classes of celtic, title, and every style of plain
type8 face made for display; in the class of
ornamental are put decorated letters, black-letter
and ornamented text, and all the simpler styles
of script and secretary. There are other varieties
of type not included in these classes: Greek,
Hebrew, and all Orientals ; music, accents, signs,
superior and inferior references; piece fractions,
space rules, and all strange types that require for
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Low Prices of Printing-types 337
the quantities made, a disproportionate expendi-
ture for punches and matrices, are necessarily
sold at special and irregular rates.
The rates made for the different sizes represent
differences in the value of labor more than of
metal. To make a pound of type re- Laborco8t8
quires only two or three letters of the more than
larger, but sometimes two or three metal
thousand of the smaller sizes. As each type has
to be separately cast and finished, the yalue of
the labor put on the smaller type is greater. The
metal in small type is harder and costs more than
that in large type, but its value in any size is
always less than that of labor. Old type, when
bartered for new, is sometimes allowed for at a
special rate ; when sold for cash, the price allowed
never exceeds that of waste lead, and is often less.
New type-metal, as sold in pigs by the smelter,
varies with the market prices of its constituents,
but is always worth more than the metal of old
type, which always has much dross.
Fluctuations in the cost of metal often make
corresponding changes in the prices of types, but
prices have been more affected by improvements
in machinery, which invariably reduce the rates.
When types were made by hand, as in the first
quarter of this century, they were of high price ;
since they have been madfe entirely by machine
they are furnished at lower rates than were ever
known before.
43
Digitized by V3OOQLC
338
Prices of American Types
Price List of the American Type Founders Co. 1
Roman
Orna-
Bodies.
and
Plain
mental
Italic.
display.
display.
Diamond, or 4$-point, per It
>.$1.20
. ,
.
Pearl, or 5-point ....
.90
. .
Agate, or 5J-point . . .
.52
.90
$2.40
Nonpareil, or 6-point . .
.45
.76
2.00
Minion, or 7-point ...
.40
.66
1.80
Brevier, or 8-point . . .
.37
.62
1.60
Bourgeois, or 9-point . .
.34
.56
1.44
Long-primer, or 10-point
.32
.52
1.30
Small-pica, or 11-point .
.31
.48
1.20
Pica, or 12-point .....
.30
.46
1.16
English, or 14-point . . .
.30
.44
1.12
Columbian, or 16-point
.30
.42
1.06
Great-primer, or 18-point
.30
.60
1.00
Paragon, or 20-point . .
.30
.60
.94
Double small-pica, or22-poiu
t .30
.56
.90
Double pica, or 24-point .
.30
.56
.90
Double english, or 28-point
.30
.56
.86
Double Columbian, 32-point
.30
.56
.86
Double great-primer, 36-poin
t .30
.56
.82
Double paragon, or 40-poinl
; .30
.54
.78
Meridian, or 44-point . . .
.30
.54
.78
Canon, or 48-point . . .
.30
.54
.72
Five-line pica, or 60-point .
.30
.52
.64
i Adopted March, 1893.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Cost of Punches and Matrices 339
These prices are subject to discount, which will
vary with fluctuations in the price of labor and
metals. The discount in ApriL 1900, is
, - , » . , , 7 Discount*
ten per cent, on regular fonts of job type,
body type, quadrats, borders, and ornaments ; for
prompt payment, five per cent. more.
The table rates for roman and italic are for
fonts that weigh not less than fifty pounds.
Sorts, or additions to a font, when ordered in
reasonable quantities, are usually furnished by
American founders at the same rate as the origi-
nal font. When ordered in small quantities the
rate may be higher. Single lines or letters are
always at a higher rate.
Although roman and italic are sold at the low-
est rates, the cost of their punches and matrices
is greater than that of the punches for cost of
plain display or ornamental. A full font p*™*^
of roman and italic, including accents and signs,
requires the cutting of about two hundred and
forty punches, and the making of as many mat-
rices, at a cost of about $1200. Ornamental types
may require more labor for each punch, but the
total number of punches in a font of this class is
always small, rarely exceeding seventy-five char-
acters. The punches for roman type are or should
be cut on steel ; those made for the larger types
are more cheaply cut on type-metal, from which
electrotype matrices are made. Steel punches for
roman and italic will cost more in the beginning,
Digitized by VaOOQlC
340 English Types
but this expense, large as it may seem, becomes a
small fraction of the entire cost when the punches
serve for the casting of many hundreds of thou-
sands of pounds.
Plain display types are rarely sold in large
quantities; fonts of ten and twenty pounds are
sizes of in greatest request. Some fonts on small
font* bodies do not weigh two pounds. Limited
sales, and the relatively greater labor that has to
be given to the casting, division, preparation, and
packing of small fonts, are the reasons given for
their greater cost. Ornamental types, required
chiefly for occasional lines of display, and always
sold in small fonts, have but a brief popularity.
As they cost more to produce, and soon go out of
fashion, the rate is necessarily high.
The rates for roman and italic in the price-list
of English printing types are for fonts of one
English hundred and twenty pounds and more,
methods Small fonts are at higher rates. Sorts
ordered within three months from the time of the
delivery of the original font are at regular rates ;
if ordered afterward at a special higher rate.
Quadrats are the only exception; when ordered
as sorts they are furnished at lower prices than
letters. A discount of ten per cent, from these
rates is often given for cash payment.
The bodies of English types differ from those of
American foundries (see the table on page 158 of
this work). In height English types differ inap-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Prices of English Types 341
Price List of English and Scotch Type-founders. 1
Bodies.
Diamond, per lb. . .
Pearl
Ruby
Nonpareil
Emerald
Minion
Brevier
Bourgeois
Long-primer ....
Small-pica
Pica
English
Great-primer ....
Paragon
Two-line pica ....
Two-line english .
Two-line great-primer
Pour-line pica . . .
Canon
Five-line pica ....
Six-line pica ....
Seven-line pica . . .
Roman ' Orna-
and i Plain mental
Italic. display, i display.
«. d.
6
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
11
11
9
9
d.
6
3
4
2
10
8
6
4
2
2
1
1
9
9
*. rf.
8 6
8
7 6
6
6
6
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 From the specimen books of Reed's Sons of London, and Mil-
H. W. Caslon & Co. and Sir Chas. ler & Richard of Edinburgh.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
342
Prices of French Types
preciably from the American; they can be used
together in the same line. The rates for small
bodies and ornamental letter are relatively higher
in England than in America.
The rates of French and German types are by
the kilogram, which is about two and one-fifth
(2.2055) American pounds. French and German
Price List of French Types. 1
Bodies.
Ordinary
romans.
Plain display.
Scripts and
ornamentals.
francs.
francs.
franc*.
Corps 6, kilo
. 8.00
12.00
. . .
Corps 7 . .
6.00
11.00
. . .
Corps 8 . .
5.50
10.00
30.00
Corps 9 . .
5.00
9.00
. . .
Corps 10 . .
4.50
8.00
18.00
Corps 11 . .
4.25
7.50
16.00
Corps 12 . .
4.00
7.25
14.00
Corps 14 . .
3.75
7.00
13.50
Corps 16 . .
3.50
7.00
13.00
Corps 18 . .
3.00
6.75
12.00
Corps 20 . .
3.00
6.50
11.00
Corps 24 . .
2.90
6.00
10.00
Corps 28 . .
2.90
6.00
9.50
Corps 36 . .
2.80
5.50
9.00
Corps 40 . .
2.80
5.00
8.00
Corps 48 . .
2.70
5.00
8.00
I Compiled from the specimen book of the Turlot Ponndry, Paris.
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Prices of German Types
343
types are of variable height, but are always higher
than the American or English. Russian types are
more than one inch high. These higher types
cannot be used in the same form with American
types until the bodies have been cut down at
their feet, but this cutting down is rarely done
with proper accuracy. Impressions from cut-down
types of foreign manufacture always show uneven
height and usually make unsatisfactory plates.
Price List of German Types. 1
Bodies.
Roman and
Plain
Scripts and
fraetur.
display.
ornamentals.
marks.
marks.
marks.
Perl, pe* kilo.
6.35
. .
Nonpareille .
4.80
8.20
Colonel . . .
4.08
.
,
Petit ....
3.18
6.20
14.00
Bourgeois . .
2.88
6.00
Corpus . . .
2.58
6.00
13.00
Cicero . . . .
2.40
6.00
13.00
Mittel ....
3.00
5.40
12.00
Tertia ....
2.90
5.20
11.00
Text ....
2.90
4.80
10.00
Doppelmittel
2.90
4.60
9.00
Kanon I . . .
2.90
4.20
8.00
Kanon II . .
2.90
4.00
8.00
l Compiled from the price-
lists of Bauer & Co. of Stutt-
gart, and Julius Klinkhardt of
Leipsic.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
344 Objections to Foreign Types
The French franc may be rated at 19.3 cents.
The German mark may be rated at 23.8 cents.
The duty levied by the United States Custom
House on all importations of type is twenty-five
„ . per cent, on the cost as stated in the in-
Customs r
duties voice. When the bill amounts to one
in 1899 hundred dollars or more, the exporter is
required to make affidavit before a United States
consul as to its correctness. The prices of Euro-
pean types do not tempt American buyers to pur-
chase. Importations of French and German types
are practically prohibited by the duty as well as
by the delay and cost of transportation, and the
damage inflicted on type by cutting down the
bodies to the American height.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
XIV
Large Types Wood Types The Pantograph
Benton's Punch-cutting Machine
A.RGE types were sparingly used in
old times : they were difficult to cast,
and they could not be effectively
printed when cast, for the hand-press
then in use could not produce the
power needed for full impression. The making of
large types had to wait for the general adoption of
iron hand-presses and cylinder printing-machines.
To make the larger types required, type-found-
ers revived the disused process of casting in sand-
moulds. Types made by this process were casting
heavy, expensive, and liable to injury. It in 8and
was difficult to keep the metal sufficiently fluid :
to prevent unequal cooling the caster often had to
put a red-hot iron in the core. The unequal cool-
ing of the metal often made the face of the type
346
Digitized by VaOOQlC
346 How Large Types were Made
concave. The greatest objection to them was their
cost. A ten-line antique M would weigh a pound,
and the cost of the metal and labor in a type of
this size, at rates then prevailing, was forty cents.
The price was practically prohibitory.
To save metal, which increased the cost, a new-
method of casting large types upon high arches
casting was adopted. This economy was pushed
on arches too far; types with slender arches often
broke in locking-up. The art of stereotyping was
then applied. The faces were cast in plates, and
these plates were mounted, sometimes on metal
and sometimes on wood bodies, but stereotyping
did not prove as economical as had been expected.
The value of the metal used was less; that of the
labor more. After continued failure the manu-
facturers of large types abandoned metal for the
larger sizes.
Not many woods are suitable. Wood for types
should be free from knots or cracks, and should
The wood have a compact grain or fiber, yet be
preferred easy to cut. Mahogany is preferred for
its hardness, but it is too porous and has to be
"filled." Maple, pear, apple, and cherry are the
woods that combine the most good qualities. For
types twelve or more inches tall, pine in the form
of boards, with the fiber of the wood parallel with
the surface plane of the impression, is selected for
its cheapness and its easy-working qualities, but
it is soft and liable to warp.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Early Methods of Cutting Wood 347
The wood types first made in the United States
were drawn by the printers who needed them
and afterward cut by carpenters. Darius ProoeBse8
Wells, a printer of New York city, who tried by
had a local reputation for good drawing D * Wells
of letters, abandoned printing in 1827, and gave
exclusive attention to the manufacture of wood
type. At that time it was the usual practice to
draw and cut on the fiat board. Wells was the
first to follow the practice of engravers on wood,
by using blocks that had been cut in sections
across the fibers. The work of preparing blocks
was done entirely by hand ; the tools most used
were the ordinary saw and slide-plane. Model
letters were drawn for all the characters on card-
board, which was then neatly cut to serve for pat-
terns. When the outline of the patterns had been
traced by pencil on the surface of the block, a
graver was used to cut a wide furrow near the
penciled line. This done, the counters and shoul-
ders were cut away by chisels and gouges. Fin-
ishing was done with gravers and fine files.
To abridge the tedious labor of cutting away
the counters and shoulders Wells made use of a
simple tool which he called the " router." It was
a fiat-faced and half-round steel bit, made to
rotate by steam power at high speed. The bit,
suspended vertically over the wood to be cut, had
attachments for raising or depressing it at will.
The block of wood to be made into a type was
Digitized by VaOOQlC
348 Leavenworth's Pantograph
firmly fastened under the router; then the opera-
tor, after applying the power, moved the cutter
spindle until every part of the counter and shoul-
der was thoroughly removed.
Other machinery was gradually introduced.
Sheet-brass patterns were used instead of cards.
Then came cast-brass patterns, with elevated edges
which, when pressed in the wood, both marked
and engraved the outlines of each type. Improved
circular saws and accurately adjusted planing-
tools soon followed. More care was also given to
the selection and seasoning of the wood. Made
by these tools, wood types were preferred to metal
types, not merely because they were cheaper but
for their lightness and convenience.
In 1834 William Leavenworth of Allentown,
New Jersey, adapted the pantograph to the man-
utiiityot ufacture of wood type. This machine
pantograph ma de unnecessary all hand-drawings of
the letter on the wood. From one set of models
attached to the pantograph an unskilled work-
man could cut on untraced wood various sizes
from two-line pica upward, and every size would
be a faithful reproduction of the model. The
pantograph is a strongly jointed and adjusta-
ble open framework of wrought iron and steel,
rhomboidal as to shape. When put to work, it
is suspended about eight inches over a fiat metal
table. It has five short projections extending
toward this table; some of them are the extreme
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Description of Pantograph
349
angles of the framework. Two of these four pro-
jections at opposite extremities reach the table,
and serve as rests to steady the action of the ma-
chine. One of the four projections is a guiding-
rod, or feeler, which follows the outline of the
The pantograph for wood type.
pattern letter beneath it (which is practically an
enlarged type in high relief), and accurately com-
municates every deviation of motion in a reduced
proportion to the router. The fifth projection is
near the center of the framework, and carries the
router, which is suspended over the block to be
cut, and can be raised or lowered at will. The
router, driven by steam, rotates at unusual speed :
fourteen thousand revolutions a minute is a com-
mon rate. Each movement of the operator's hand
Digitized by VaOOQlC
350 Benton Punch-cutting Machine
in guiding the index around the pattern letter is
followed by a corresponding exactness of move-
ment in the router that cuts the block. The type
is often made in as short a time as one could
trace the outlines of the pattern by pencil, and it
is cut more accurately than a type made by hand.
When it leaves the pantograph it is nearly finished;
an exacter angling of the corners by the graver is
nearly all the additional work required. The pan-
tograph is also successfully applied to the making
of large borders and ornaments. Letters and bor-
ders as small as two-line pica can be made on
wood, but these smaller bodies can claim no su-
periority over corresponding sizes in metal, either
in cheapness or convenience.
Some features of the pantograph have been
successfully incorporated in a machine for the
cutting of punches, invented by L. B.
used on Benton of Milwaukee. The process of
the Benton making the letters that serve for the
mm n m0( iels on the Benton machine begins
with a pencil sketch on paper of letters twelve
inches high. The drawing is reproduced by the
pantograph, but it reappears in the form of a
model letter, three inches high, with raised out-
lines on a metal plate that has been covered with
wax. Prom this wax reproduction an electrotype
is taken, which serves as a model for the opera-
tor. By a proper adjustment of the leverage (the
mechanism for which is too small to be repre-
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Benton punch-cutting machine.
Height, 5 feet 4 inches; floor space, 22 x 28 inches.
851
Digitized by V3OOQLC
352 Benton Punch-cutting Machine
sented in the illustration), the model letter can be
made to serve for the cutting of any body from
two-point to seventy-two point. 1
In this machine the electrotyped letter that is
accepted as the model of the punch to be cut is
Accuracy of firmly fixed on the lower platform over
the machine which the movable index or guide is
vertically suspended. The four rods attached to
the head-plate of this index are connected with
gimbals that give to the guide the greatest flexi-
bility with the greatest accuracy of movement.
The punch to be cut (also too small to be shown
in the drawing) is placed on the small table near
the head of the connecting rods. The cutting
tools are exceedingly minute, but they are made
with the nicest accuracy, and are rotated at high
speed by steam power.
The direction given to the index at the will of
the operator around the outlines and interior lines
of the model letter is faithfully repeated by the
cutting tools on the punch. The punches pro-
duced by the machine are finished in all points
and require no supplemental hand- work. The cut-
ting is necessarily more accurate than that done
entirely by hand; the counters are deeper, the
bevels truer, and always of uniform slope. When
1 The facsimile of a signature, of a powerful magnifying glass.
consisting of two initials and six The total length of the signature
lower-case letters, was cut in a did not exceed the thickness of
script so small that it could not two sheets of writing paper. —
be distinguished without the aid ' ' Inland Printer," vol. xii, p. 238.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Its Nice Adjustments 353
care has been taken to trim the model letters to
correct line and position, the punch will also be
cut in corresponding line and position.
The machines for shaping and sharpening the
cutting tools, also invented by Mr. Benton, will
produce tools of any angle. They are Accuracy of
so constructed that each tool is sharp- *&« cutters
ened with its point in the center of its rotation
without removal from its original position.
The inventor claims, and the claim is not dis-
puted, that punches completed by this machine
produce matrices that are more readily fitted up
and justified than those cut by hand. Models for
accents, fractions, and borders can be made in sec-
tions, and accurately conjoined in proper position
before the cutting of the punch. The punches for
accents are always truly fiat on the face, and all
kinds of kerns can be provided with proper sup-
ports. The success of the Linotype (type-making
and type-composing) machine is largely due to the
accuracy of the matrices made from Benton ma-
chine punches. As the counters are deeper and
the bevels truer, the types do not show distortion
when they have been flattened by wear.
Some type-setting machines recently invented
owe their utility to new processes for making
types. In many of them the type-set- Automatic
ting apparatus is so closely connected type-casters
with that of type-making as to make it impracti-
cable to give a clear description of one without
44
Digitized by VaOOQlC
354 The Mergenthaler Machine
the other. A sketch of the type-making apparatus
is all that can be given here.
Mechanical type-setting was long delayed and
often entirely defeated by difficulties encountered
Avoids the * n *k e distribution and reuse of the
distribution composed types. Most inventors found
of the types y. ex p e aient to invent a special machine
for distribution as a necessary adjunct to the type-
setter. In the Mergenthaler Linotype machine
this difficulty was overcome by the construction
of an apparatus which cast composed types to-
gether in the form of solid lines, and made distri-
bution as impossible as it was unnecessary; for
the new method promised to make it cheaper to
use new types than to distribute and reuse old
types. This machine, which assembles, spaces,
justifies, and casts the letters needed in compo-
sition, is too complex for a detailed description in
a treatise on types only, and not on their compo-
sition. The following outline of the type-making
apparatus is that of the manufacturers.
The Mergenthaler Linotype machine has for its fun-
damental element about fifteen hundred brass matrices,
which respond to the operator's touch upon the key-
board, and thus create the type-matter ready for use.
These matrices consist of small, flat plates, having in
one edge a female letter, and in the upper end a series
of teeth, for distributing purposes. There are in the
machine a number of matrices for each letter, also for
special characters, and for spaces and quads of definite
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Mergenthaler Machine 355
thicknesses. Used in connection with the matrices are
elongated wedge-shaped spaces, which are inserted be-
tween the words.
The machine casts metal slugs, type-high, having
upon their upper edge type-characters to print a line.
These slugs present the appearance of composed lines
of type, and for this reason are called "Linotypes."
The machine is so constructed that on manipulating the
keyboard it will select matrices in the order in which
they are to appear in print, and assemble them in a
line with the wedge-shaped spaces.
This line of female type is adapted to produce raised
type upon a slug, after which they are returned to the
magazine to be again composed in new relations for
succeeding lines. The magazine is in an inclined posi-
tion, and contains channels in which the matrices for
any face may be stored, and through which they pass.
Each channel is connected with a finger key, repre-
senting the character it contains. When a key is de-
pressed, a matrix, or a space, falls upon an inclined
travelling belt which carries it into the assembler. This
is continued until the assembler contains sufficient
characters to represent one line of print. It is then
transferred to a mould extending through the mould
wheel. The mould is of the exact size of the slug re-
quired. The assembled matrix line closes the front of
the mould, and the faces of the matrices are brought in
line with it. At this point the wedge-shaped spaces are
pushed further through the line, and exact spacing and
justification are secured. In the rear of the mould is a
melting-pot, heated by gas or gasoline, containing
molten metal. The pot has a mouthpiece arranged to
close the rear of the mould, and contains a pump. While
Digitized by VaOOQlC
356 The Mergenthaler Machine
the matrix line is in position the pump forces the metal
into the mould, against and into the female characters
of the matrix line. The metal instantly solidifies, re-
gardless of the length or thickness of the slug. The
mould wheel then makes a partial revolution, bringing
the mould in front of an ejector blade, which pushes
the slug out of the mould into a receiving galley, ready
for the proof -press.
To insure absolute accuracy in the height and thick-
ness of the slugs knives are arranged to act upon them
during their course to the galley. The line of matrices
is then lifted from the mould to the distributor bar at
the top of the machine, the wedge-shaped spaces being
left behind and shifted into the receptacle from which
they were discharged.
The ribs of the distributor bar are cut away at dif-
ferent points, thus making a special arrangement over
the mouth of each channel. The matrices are pushed
upon the bar at its end and made to move slowly along
until each one arrives at a point where its teeth bear
such relation to the ribs that it disengages and falls
into its proper channel, there to remain until all the
preceding matrices, bearing the same character, have
performed the same duty, when it again makes the
circuit.
This circulation permits the operations of composing
one line, casting a second, and distributing a third to
be carried on concurrently, and enables the machine
to run at a speed exceeding that at which any operator
can finger the keys. It also makes it unnecessary to
have more than three or four matrices of any special
sort that may be required, such as accents and other
arbitrary characters.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Other Type-making Machines 357
The Lanston Monotype is a machine that makes
and sets single types. To use it, copy must be pre-
viously prepared on a distinct machine, The Lanston
not unlike a type- writer in size and ap- type-caster
pearance, which punches holes, as directed by the
operator, in a narrow strip of rolled paper. The
punched holes, like those required for the Jacquard
loom, serve as guides for the operations of type-
casting and type-setting. As this roll of paper is
unwound in the larger machine the punched holes
direct the presentation of the proper matrix to the
mould. In this mould melted metal is injected,
and perfected types are produced at the rapid rate
of one hundred and fifty or more a minute. The
punching of the holes requires a skilled operator,
but the additional operations of casting, setting,
and justifying the types are purely automatic.
The manufacturers claim that the types so made
are fully equal to those made by the older method,
and that they can be used again, if required, in
subsequent composition by hand, but it is cheaper
to make new types than to reuse the old.
There are other machines, still in process of de-
velopment, but not yet doing practical work, that
have been devised for mechanical composition.
In one, movable matrices are arranged over a bar
of cold metal, and the letters are swaged by pres-
sure. In another, types are cast in little cubes and
then securely fastened on a previously prepared
bar or line of metal. In another, the type-casting
Digitized by VaOOQlC
358 Old Methods not Disused
machine supplies the magazine of the conjoined
but distinct type-setter with a regular supply of
types.
Considering the many unexpected improvements
that have been made in this century, it is hazard-
Permanence ous to assume that there can be no more
of the old improvement in type-making j but it is
not at all probable that the older methods of type-
making will fall into entire disuse. There is and
always will be a vast amount of type-setting that
must be done from single types and by hand com-
position. New faces that are always in limited re-
quest, and on bodies smaller than agate or larger
than pica, will be made by the older casting ma-
chine, which holds a position not unlike that of
the hand-press; for although cylinder-presses now
do nearly all the printing of the world, there are
more hand-presses made, sold, and used than ever.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
XV
The Quaint Styles of Plain Type
flt ORE attention has been given to the
" production of quaint styles of text-
type during the last decade of this
century than the subject ever re-
^c^> ceived during any similar period.
The old craving for highly ornamented letters
seems to be dead; it receives no encour- Neglect of
agement from type-founders. Printers ornamentals
have been surfeited with ornamented letters that
did not ornament and did degrade composition,
and that have been found, after many years of
use, frail, expensive, and not attractive to buyers.
They listen with more respect to the teachings of
men who hold that the proper function of types is
to convey instruction, and that they are not im-
proved by decoration, any more than a trowel is
by painting or a saw by gilding.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
360 Objections made to Changes
More changes have been made in the direction
of eccentricity than in that of simplicity. Fantas-
tic letters were never in greater request, but they
rarely appear as types in books. To see the wild-
est freaks of fancy one must seek them not in the
specimen books of type-founders, but in the photo-
engraved lettering made for displayed advertise-
ments and tradesmen's pamphlets. In a treatise
on printing-types further remark on engraved let-
tering is not needed.
Although there is a demand for quaintness in
decorative printing, readers object to any serious
departure from the accepted standards of form.
For the types of serious books roman letter has
been made fat or thin, round or angled, weak or
bold, by type-founders of all countries, but vague-
ness in any character has never been tolerated.
The few improvements that have conquered stub-
born prejudices met with opposition when they
were introduced. Benjamin Franklin, famous as
an innovator in many matters, lamented the dis-
use of italic and of capital letters, for the nouns in
a text. He pointedly decried the new fashion of
substituting the short final s for the long f at the
beginning or in the middle of a word. An Eng-
lish bishop compelled the reprinting, to the prin-
ter's loss, of his sermon in which the long f had
been supplanted by the short s. The writer of this
chapter had a similar experience with an author
who wanted old-style letter, but refused to accept
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Kelmscott Types 361
the pinched s of a Caslon old-style, because it was
too narrow to please him. Strong objection was
made to truly lined arabic figures ; the old form
of figure, unequal in height and out of line, was
preferred. The present form of & was resisted as
inferior to 6r*. To this day the doubled letters fi,
ff, fl, ffi, ffl, 8B, oe continue to be made by type-
founders, when there is no need for these unsightly
combinations.
It is the belief of most readers that the great
merit of typography is in the unvarying uniform-
ity of every character. On the contrary, it is held
by some artists that roman types as now made are
too uniform and too monotonous, too " typy," and
altogether inartistic. William Morris is reported
as saying in 1890 that no good book printing had
been done since the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury, and that the degradation of the art is largely
due to mean types. To reform typography we
need better 'types; we must be more tolerant of
quaintness, and must attempt the revival of medi-
eval methods. It was this conviction that impelled
him to design the new form which he called the
Golden type, shown on page 207 of this book. It
was not his favorite, for he confessed his aversion
to classic, and his leaning to Teutonic forms of let-
ters. Not entirely content with his first experi-
ment, he decided that the next should be a new
form of black-letter. It was a difficult task, for in-
vention seemed to have been exhausted in the
Digitized by VaOOQlC
362 Services Bendered by Morris
many varieties of black-letter previously shown by
type-founders. He saw that it was impracticable
to graft his notions of good form on the condensed
fractur of the Germans, or on the angular and
equally thin Old English or pointed black-letter.
The broad-faced round gothic of the early printers
of Germany was accepted as more available, but
he made his new Troy type much wider, bolder,
and blacker. Most of his lower-case characters,
quaint as they may seem, are unexceptionable as
to simplicity. In his capital letters he was not as
successful: his forms of O, QM* N are practically
roman ; but his & f L, \ f V, f are not gothic, nor
good mates for the lower-case. A line of capitals
in Troy type is not pleasing. Morris made a read-
able lower-case, but the greater breadth given to
all letters for the sake of greater blackness made
the spacing of words in a composition of type un-
usually difficult. To fill the unsightly gaps that
were unavoidable, but inconsistent With his no-
tions of thin spacing, he designed the unmeaning
and often unpleasing bits of ornamentation that
appear in the illustration. The Troy type appears
to best advantage in the Kelmscott books, for it
is there always in harmony with the subject-mat-
ter. Morris went too far in the exposition of his
theories, but the reading world is indebted to him
for his demonstration of the merit of a really mas-
culine style. He has shown as no one ever did
before that typography need not imitate photog-
raphy, lithography, or copperplate.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Satanick Type 363
erne zRoy rype of the
Kelmscott press was design-
ed by Qlilliam JMorris and cut
by 6mery SHalker on the body
of great-primer* It was first
used in printing the book'Tbe
Recuyell of tbe IMstoryes of
*Croye," dated i^tb October,
i$92.jrCbt Chaucer type is a
similar face upon a pica body,
This Troy type was tbe model
of tbe type on tbis page, wbicb
is made in tbe United States
by tbe Mmerican *Cype found-
ers Co, on many bodies from
6-point to 72-poinfcj^It is a
composite letter — so made by
adding gotbic mannerisms to
a fat-faced and angled roman*
18-point body.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
364 The Jenson Type
The Jenson type is the. American adaptation
of the Golden type. Although the specimen here
shown is on a similar body of 14-point, the round
letters of the lower-case of the Jenson are a little
higher, and the body-marks a trifle thicker. This
enlargement and thickening, with more closely
fitted types, give more blackness to the print and
less relief of white between lines of solid composi-
tion. The Jenson type has been successfully used
in the United States for the composition of large
quarto books that are decorated with broad black
or colored borders. It is sometimes used with
good effect for small books in octavo or duodecimo,
but it occupies too much space and is too sombre
for the ordinary book. For dainty little books
smaller than an 18mo the smaller sizes of this style
are well adapted. When leaded they give a clear-
ness to fine print not to be had from any face of
ordinary roman letter. The Jenson capitals are
often selected for title-pages that call for bold and
large letters,- but the close fitting of the capitals
makes obligatory an unequal spacing of types too
closely fitted. The recent addition of an italic
letter having all the peculiarities of the Jenson,
lining and mating with it, causes it to be preferred
by job printers and advertisers for the display of
type. It was planned by J. W. Phinney of the old
Dickinson Foundry of Boston. It is founded on
many bodies from 6-point to 72-point, and is sold
by the American Type Founders Company.
Digitized by LjOOQIC
The Jenson Type 365
NICOLAS JENSON, an engraver
of the mint, was sent to Mainz in
\ 458 by Charles VII, King of France,
to get a knowledge of the new art of
printing. He went back to Paris in
1461, but it is not probable that he
there did any typographic work. In
147 \ he printed four books at Venice,
and there continued to print until his
death in J 48 J. Pope Sixtus IV gave
him the title of Count Palatine for
his services to typography. At differ-
ent times he had as partners in busi-
ness John of Cologne and John Her-
bort of Selingenstadt. Strikes from
the punches of the Jenson roman, of
which Jenson had made one size only,
were acquired after his death by An-
drew Torresani of Asola, and they
were afterward used by his son-in-
law Aldus Manutius. Jenson was
not the first printer to make roman
types, but his face of roman was re-
garded as better than that of any rival.
14-point body.
American Type Founders Co.
Digitized by VjOO?IC
366 Fifteenth Centwy Style
The Fifteenth Century Style was made to sup-
ply a demand for a rude form of roman, which is
erroneously supposed to be the form of roman
first used by the early printers. The larger sizes
are most approved ; the smaller sizes are somewhat
obscured by the compression of unequally propor-
tioned characters. This series fitly illustrates the
impracticability of making types in many sizes by
geometrical rules, as was recommended by the
old theorists in type-making. Large sizes may be
compressed with advantage, but small sizes must
be expanded to maintain their legibility.
This style seems to be the clever adaptation of
an uncouth type used by Windelin of Speyer in
his edition of John Duns Scotus, a thick, quarto
(8J x 6£ inches) of 652 pages, printed at Venice
about 1475. The mean type of this book is en-
tirely unlike the beautiful large roman type of the
Livy printed by John and Windelin of Speyer in
1472, and the reader wonders that this degrada-
tion in form could have been made in three years.
Brown, in his valuable book on the Venetian Print-
ing Press, suggests the explanation. A short ex-
perience had demonstrated to printers that books
in large types and of folio form cost too much and
found few buyers. To meet the preference of Ital-
ian printers for roman types and smaller books,
Windelin had made for him a new face of roman
on pica body and of condensed shape, with intent
to put the matter of a folio on a page of quarto.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Fifteenth-Century Roman 367
THE FIRST ROMAN TYPES
about four lines to the inch, were
made at Subiaco, near Rome, in
the year 1465 by the German printers Sweynheim and
Pannartz. It was not a pleasing character, for the let-
ters were rudely cut with thick lines, condensed as to
shape, and were too closely ftted. In its lower case
it resembled the gothic more than the roman style. In
1467 the same printers made at Rome a new roman,
broader as to shape, and with types not so closely ftted,
but it was not acceptable to Italian readers. In 1469 John
and Windelin of Speyer made a much lighter and rounder
style of roman, but the types were too widely ftted. The
true standard of form and proportion, of f tting and lin-
ing, was shown for the f rst time by Nicolas Jcnson in
1470, and was readily accepted by Ratdolt and Renner of
the same city, and the type-founders of all countries.
Mongrel romans, or combinations of roman and gothic,
were introduced in Germany, but they were not approved
and soon went out of fashion. Disproportioned and un-
couth shapes of roman, uneven lining and bad type-found-
ing, were not long tolerated in the f f teenth century.
This XVth-century face was devised by Barnhart
Brothers 6 Spindler, of Chicago, in 1896, and is made
by them of roman and italic form in many sizes from
8- point to 48-point. To advertisers who intend to give to
print an appearance of early rudeness this face is welcome.
12- and 18-point bodies.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
368 The Renner Type
Unfortunately, the new type was badly cut and
cast. The types were closely fitted and out of line,
and many letters seem high-to-paper, making faults
in press- work. The letters are disproportioned ;
every page swarms with contractions and abbre-
viations. The new style must have been a failure,
for I have never seen it in any other book.
The Renner type, which follows, is a fair copy,
but not a servile imitation, of the style of type de-
vised by Franz Renner of Venice, and first used by
him in his edition of the " Quadragesimale" of 1472.
It was made in 1899 for the service of the De Vinne
Press, to exemplify the belief of the writer that
the legibility of print does not depend so much
upon an increase in the blackness or thickness of
its stems as on the entire and instant visibility of
every line in every character. It was planned in
conformity to the rules observed by all the old print-
ers : the short letters occupy about one-third of the
body; the ascenders and descenders, equal in length,
give the full relief of white space between the lines
which contributes so much to easy reading.
Although the types of William Morris have been
put aside by publishers as unfitted for the texts
of ordinary books, they have exerted a marked in-
fluence on the tastes of many readers. They have
demonstrated most successfully the importance of
a type that gives fitting expression to the sub-
ject-matter. Unfortunately, there are readers who
do not fully appreciate the value of this harmony
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Benner Type 369
FRANZ RENNER, of Hailbrun, Ger-
many, was the sixth printer of Venice, in
which city he practised his art with suc-
cess between the years 1470 and 1494*
In John and Windelin de Speyer and in
Nicolas Jenson, who had preceded him,
he found rivals of great ability, who were
trying to please Italian readers with new
faces. Franz Renner was moved to
emulation. The model of roman which
he selected had marked grace of form, but
it was of much lighter face than the types
of his predecessors. This preference of
the first Italian printers for large roman
characters proved a mistake. Not only
Jenson, but Renner and other printers of
Venice, found it expedient to print the
largest number of subsequent books from
gothic types of small size, condensed and
of very black face. The large roman was
wasteful of space, and made books bulky
and dear; the gothic was more compact
and enabled the printer to put more words
on a page. Roman types were not ac-
ceptable until they were made small.
14-point body.
The De Vinne Press.
45
Digitized by VaOOQlC
370 Types need a Belief of Blank
between type and text ; and there are printers who
do not see how the merit of these peculiar forms
of old-style faces is enhanced by Morris's admi-
rable selection of paper, press, and processes of
printing. Some attribute the merit of the Kelm-
scott letters to their quaintness of design, but more
to the largeness of their type and the blackness of
the print. They jump to the conclusion that a
readable print must be an over-black print, and
that the thickening of the stems and the broaden-
ing of the form of ordinary roman type, so that it
may receive more ink and impression, are all that is
needed for readability. This is a serious mistake,
but one that has been repeatedly made. As early
as the first half of the sixteenth century thick-
stemmed roman types, mainly on pica body, were
made and used at Paris and Venice. They were
fairly tested, but soon went out of fashion. The
fat-faces of Thorne in London and of Didot in
Paris, introduced in the first quarter of the nine-
teenth century, had a fair trial, and have been put
aside as complete failures. Something more than
blackness and fatness is required to produce the
highest legibility.
Types need a generous relief of white space, not
only within but without each character, to give
proper value to their black lines. Every reader
sees that a display line in condensed type is not
as readable as in types of standard width, and
that leaded is always more attractive than solid
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Blanks disapproved by Morris 371
type ; yet a title-page set entirely in light-faced
roman capitals, even when the displayed lines are
condensed and the minor lines are in capitals
needlessly small, may be readable and inviting.
Its legibility and attractiveness are largely pro-
duced by the wide blanks between the lines. Take
out these blanks and huddle the lines together,
and it will be found that the once pleasing composi-
tion has been made as repelling as a squeezed ad-
vertisement in a daily newspaper. It may seem
unnecessary to repeat this platitude, but there is
need for its repetition with emphasis. Publishers
of newspapers and books are continually demand-
ing types with faces too large for the bodies, and
with short ascenders and descenders that seriously
contract the narrow lane of white space between
lines. Type-founders, trying to meet this demand,
sometimes fit types so closely that the white space
between two meeting types of m is less than the
space between the stems of each individual m.
Even William Morris advises that each type be
made so that it shall nearly fill its body; that
the white space between lines be made small ; that
leads be.used only when unavoidable ; and that the
spaces between words always be made thin. This
counsel is what might have been expected from a
printer whose types were too large for the matter
of his books, and who, to avoid added expense, was
compelled to publish many of them in quarto form
and in two or three volumes, and to treat poetry
Digitized by VaOOQlC
372 The Bomische Versalien
as prose, when necessity directed, by running verse
together in solid paragraphs. It will be admitted
that leads and spaces are often used unwisely, to
the damage of good printing, but this admission
does not invalidate the general experience that
print to be most readable must have more of
white than of black within the page. Considera-
tions of economy often compel the publisher to
make use of large-faced type, to space close and
reject leads; but the reader always prefers types
that are not huddled and that are easily read.
THE LARGE CAPITALS
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION ARE
EXHIBITS OF A NEW STYLE OF
ROMAN
SUITABLE FOR BOLD TITLE-PAGES
AND FOR PLAIN PRINTING IN
COLORED INKS
Romische Versalien.
Genzsch & Heyse, Hamburg.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Bradford Face 373
To meet the demand for a bolder face of roman
type than any then made for strict book- work,
Genzsch & Heyse of Hamburg, Germany, have
recently produced a full series of the types par-
tially exhibited on the preceding page. The series
with lower-case letters is called by these founders
Romische Antiqua; the series of capital letters
only, Romische Versalien. This face is much
bolder than that of the Caslon or of any other
form of old-style. It is not so bold as the De Vinne,
but it does not have the eccentric letters of the
latter style, which prevent its employment as a
text-letter in all books intended to be severely sim-
ple as to style. For the title-pages of large quarto
or folio books it is admirably adapted. Its broad
lines, but not too bold face, enable the pressman
to give to it a generous supply of ink. In an
office provided with this series the compositor has
no temptation to select light-faced antiques, eel-
tics, or runics for the words of a title that are
marked for display in red ink. This style is made
by the A. D. Farmer & Son Type Founding Com-
pany of New York in complete series of capitals
and lower-case, graded from 8-point to 72-point,
and is sold by them under the name of the Brad-
ford Face. The capitals maintain their merit in
all sizes and combinations, but the lower-case of
the smaller sizes does not so fully and advanta-
geously show the peculiarities of the style.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
374 The MacFarland Type
THE MACFARLAND FACE
of the St. Louis Type Foundry,
presented on this page, is cast on
many bodies, from 6-point to 72-
point. In boldness and simpli-
city it is a worthy rival of the R6-
mische; but it has some meritori-
ous peculiarities of its own. The
Romische, MacFarland, and Fif-
teenth Century faces appear to
best advantage on the larger bod-
ies. The 8-point seems to be,'
and probably is, a truly propor-
tioned reduction of a very large
size, but it does not produce the
same effect. It demonstrates the
futility of making types by arbi-
trary geometrical rules.
18-point body.
St. Louis Type Foundry.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Uniformity in Effect is Impossible 375
Lines that are not too black in the larger sizes
seem too black in the smallest size. The relief
of white space that is ample in the solid compo-
sition of 24-point is too small for a solid compo-
sition on the 8-point body. Nor does leading the
lines entirely remove the defect.
How the desired uniformity in effect is to be
preserved throughout a series of sizes is still a
puzzle to all type-founders. A gradual increase
in the width of each type, as types decrease in
size, is an aid, but it is not enough ; and this ex-
periment is always attended with danger, for a
slight expansion may seriously alter the peculiar-
ity of the style. The lengthening of ascenders
and descenders is another aid ; but no one as yet
can lay down any rule as to the proper length.
The thinning of the stem or body-mark by a small
fraction of a millimetre produces improved light-
ness j but it is another experiment of risk that may
destroy the character of the style. All type-
founders know that when equal skill and care
have been given to the cutting of every size, and
proper precautions have been taken to prevent
optical illusions, one size will always seem more
pleasing than any other. Reductions of type are
as disastrous as reductions of drawings. The de-
sign that covers one hundred square inches on
paper may be entirely pleasing in light and shade
and general effect, but it becomes confused and
indistinct when reduced to ten square inches.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
376 The Century Face
THE CENTURY FACE was designed to make for the
Century Magazine a blacker and more readable type
than the thin and gray-printing old-style letter in
which it had been printed for many years. The hair-
lines of this Century face were made of a perceptible
thickness, the serifs were shortened, and the body-
marks protracted a trifle. To secure a proper relief
of white space within each character the round let-
ters were made a little taller. To proportion the type
for a large page in two columns and with narrow mar-
gins, and to give the usual amount of text in the Cen-
tury page, the characters were compressed a trifle.
The lower-case alphabet of the modernized old-style
on long-primer body, previously used on this maga-
zine, was twelve and a half ems wide; in this face, which
is much larger, it is twelve and an eighth ems wide.
Leaded with twelve-to-pica leads.
The changes from old standards, purposely made by
the designer, were not of great importance, but most of
them were in directions that had been usually avoided
by type-makers. The thickened lines enable the press-
man to produce print that is really black and not
apparently gray, as was unavoidable in press-work on
small sizes of modernized old-style. This face was
modelled and cut by Mr. L. B. Benton, and is made on
the bodies of 10- 9- and 8-point, by the American Type
Founders Company. For long lines of poetry printed
in duodecimo or in any smaller size, as well as for all
compact composition in a narrow measure, this style
of face is properly adapted. These are the small
capitals and these the italic characters of this font.
Solid.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
The Century Broad-face 377
THE CENTURY BROAD-FACE was made by
the De Vinne Press for service on books to be
set in a broad measure, which do not require a
compression of letters for the saving of space.
It retains the thickened hair-line, the short serif,
and all the characteristics of the face described
on the previous page. The purpose of the de-
signer was to give to each letter a larger face
than is usual in text-types of this body, with as
much boldness of line as would be consistent
with the greatest legibility. This desired large-
ness with boldness has been carried to its full-
est extreme. It is a readable letter when it is
set solid, but it is made more readable when the
lines have been separated by a twelve-to-pica lead.
Leaded with twelve-to-pica leads.
Types are not always made more readable by
giving them larger and blacker faces. The at-
tractiveness of a very black-faced type when used
in one line or in a few lines becomes repelling
when it is used in a mass. A page of fat-faced
type compels a greater strain on the eye than a
page of ordinary book-type. What a reader needs
for pleasurable reading is the instant visibility of
every stroke in every letter; but this visibility is
dimmed when the types have too much black.
The strength of the black is weakened when its
relief of white is diminished. THESE are the
SMALL capitals and these the italic characters
of this font. The lower-case alphabet of this
face is thirteen and one half ems wide.
Solid.
Digitized by VaOOQlC
378 The Old Roman Face
OLD ROMAN is the name given to this
entirely new series of text letter, in which
most of the good features of the old-style
character have been preserved; the hair-
lines and body-marks have been thick-
ened, and the serifs have been shortened,
but not pointed or bracketed. Increased
width has been given to every character,
but without producing any appearance of
undue expansion or obesity. It is a most
readable type, which can be used with
perfect propriety in standard books, for
which the bold and black faces of many
recent styles are not adapted. It is made
by H. W. Caslon & Co., of London, on
bodies of Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer,
Bourgeois, and Brevier. Unlike a great
many new styles, it will bear reduction
without loss of legibility. The object the
founders had in view when producing
this series was to secure greater plain-
ness, and, therefore, facility in reading.
Hitherto legibility of type faces has been
sacrificed to fine lines and hair serifs.
Designed by T. W. Smith for H. W. Caslon & Co., London.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Types made Ineffective in Print 379
Many of the quaint types recently introduced,
and intended to be very black in print, are a disap-
pointment to publishers. In most instances the
disappointment comes not from fault/ in the type,
but from faulty methods of printing. The Jenson
or Satanick types (or even the old-style antiques
now often used as fair substitutes for older styles
of text-types) are relatively ineffective when they
are printed dry against a hard impression surface
upon coarse and rough laid paper made from badly
prepared wood-pulp. Under these conditions no
art of the printer can give to the print the solidity
of color noticeable in all well-printed old books.
The grayness of type so treated is not produced,
as is sometimes asserted, by machine printing, for
a well-made cylinder printing-machine has more
strength than any hand-press, and it can ink the
types with more evenness. To make sure of old-
style results, old-style methods must be used : the
paper must be of hard stock and properly damp-
ened, and the impression must be resisted by an
elastic blanket. The press-work must not be hur-
ried; ink must be dry upon one side of the sheet
before beginning reiteration on the other side.
Digitized by V3OOQLC
Digitized by V3OOQLC
INDEX
Accents, not furnished in regular
assortment for font, 12, 172, 173
Adams, Isaac, inventor of Adams
printing-press, sketch of, 227
Adams, Joseph Alexander, Ameri-
can wood-engraver, successful
experiments of, in electrotyping
woodcuts, 18 (note), 219; develops
method of overlaying and mak-
ing-ready woodcuts, 219; four-
and six-roller Adams presses first
made at his suggestion, 219
Agate (54-point), classed as an ir-
regular body, 58; capital and
lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; a
favorite size for newspaper ad-
vertisements, 67; known in Eng-
land as ruby, 67; examples of,
solid and leaded, 98, 99; adver-
tisements in, 106 ; standard width
of, 114
Aldine, an approved form of con-
densed title, 285
Alost, announcement of John of
Westphalia at, 80; types made
at, equal to those of France and
Italy, 92
Alphabet, examples of sizes of, in
standard types, 60, 61; various
widths of, in different types, 114-
116; inadequacy of the roman,
235 ; limits of size for a readable,
259 (see also note) ; simplification
of, due to early printers, 293 (see
also note 1)
America, type-casting machines in,
26 (note) ; extensive use of stereo-
typing by publishers in. 40 ; excel-
sior, or 3-point, used for music,
etc., in, 68; first practical at-
tempt to establish correct pro-
portions of types in, 146-149;
Scotch-face first shown in, 213
American Type Founders Com-
pany. See Type Founders Com-
pany, American
Amsterdam, notable type-founders
at, 92
Anderson, Alexander, the father of
American wood-engraving, notice
of, 216
Andrews, Robert, the successor of
Moxon, unsatisfactory work of,
96
Anglo-black, description and illus-
tration of, 312
Antimony, a constituent of type-
metal, 9, 32 (see also note), 33, 35
(note)
Antique, stronger impression ne-
cessary for page of, 51, 52; de-
scription of, 184 ; the lighter faces
of, used for distinction in some
texts, 236; newer styles of, pre-
ferred for condensed letters, 266 ;
firm lines of doric, 289; charac-
teristics of, 323 ; the earliest form
of bold display type, 323 ; exam-
ples of, 324 ; formerly the most
popular of display types, 325 ; ex-
ample of old-style, 325 ; remarks
upon different styles of, 325, 326 ;
old-style peculiarities attached
to, 326; lightest and most open
form of, 326; examples of various
faces of, 326, 327 ; other styles of,
327; examples of latin and con-
densed, 328, 329 ; remarks upon,
Digitized by VaOOQlC
382
Index
and example of, the Cashing; old-
style, 320, 330; examples of, and
remarks upon, other styles, 330-
334; effective for display and
colored work, 334; example of,
and remarks upon, No. 27, corps
5, 334, 335; smaller sizes of light-
faced, used with good results for
little books, 334, 335
Antwerp, various type-founders em-
ployed by Plantm in, 92
Ascenders, types with long, 49, 50 ;
types with short, 50; their rela-
tion to the type body, 58
Atlas, a bold form of title-type, 289
Augsburg, early printers of, under-
take to furnish small ornamental
initials, 83
Austin, Richard, a noted English
punch-cutter, and his successors,
102
Baine, John, with his grandson, es-
tablishes type-foundry at Phila-
delphia, 102.
Bamberg Missal of 1481, largest
text-types used in, 84
Barker, Christopher, queen's print-
er in 1582, report of, on printing,
95
Barth, Henry, invents a complete
type-casting machine, 27, 28; il-
lustration and description of his
height-to-paper gauge, 153
Baskerville, John, an eminent Eng-
lish type-founder, biographical
sketch of, 99
Basle old-style, remarks upon, and
example of, 198, 199 (see also note 1 )
Battery, use of, in electrotyping, 18
Beard, in types. See Neck
Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin
Caron de, French author, super-
intends edition of Voltaire in
Baskerville types, 99
Benton, L. B., of Milwaukee, in-
ventor of punch-cutting machine,
350; his machines for shaping
and sharpening its cutting tools,
353; superiority claimed for
punches completed by his ma-
chine, 353
Berthold, Heinrich, Berlin type-
founder, adjusts height of Ger-
man types to French standard,
131 (see also note)
Bessemer, Anthony, an English in-
ventor and type-founder, 101, 102
Bewick, Thomas, eminent wood-
engraver, sketch of, 206
Bev, Jacob, establishes a second
foundry at Germantown, Pa., 102
Bible, the, pearl a favorite type for
pocket editions of, 67
Bible of 36 lines, printed from types
of double pica Dody, 74
Bible of 42 lines, type on paragon
body favored by printer of, 63 ;
illuminated at Mentz in 1456, 74;
supposed to have been printed
by Gutenberg before 1455, 293
(noU2) ; old English black-letter
modeled on lower-case letters of,
294 (see also note 2)
Bible-text, great-primer also known
as, 63 (note); that of Gutenberg
the basis of modern black-letter,
91
Bill, in typography. See Scheme
Binny, Archibald, Scottish type-
founder, devises first improve-
ment in hand-casting, 26 (note) ;
forms partnership with Ronald-
son ana establishes type-foundry
at Philadelphia, 102, 202; bis in-
ventions and successors, 102 ; re-
ceives valuable suggestions from
the type-founding tools formerly
owned bv Franklin, 155 (note)
Black, early English type-founders
adhere to the pointed, 300; ex-
ample of Old English, 300; in-
troduction of the fat-faced, 301 ;
denunciation of fat-faced, by
Hansard and Dibdin, 301 (see also
notes) ; examples of fat-faced, 301 ;
fat-faced, in favor for many years,
302; fat-faced, not popular in
France and Germany, 302 ; Angus-
tan, 307 ; remarks upon the light-
face and bold-face condensed, 307.
308,309; example of Augustan, 308;
example of bold-face condensed,
309; remarks upon Saxon, 311,
312 ; remarks upon, and example
of, Anglo-black, 312; remarks
upon, and examples of, medieval.
313, 314
Black-letter, Gutenberg's Bible-
text the basis of modern, 91 ; the
form of, preferred by early Eng-
lish printers still regarded as best,
93 ; a degenerate form of roman,
184, 291 ; beginning of, 291 ; called
gothic by bibliographers, 291 (see
also note): form approved by copy-
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Index
383
ists before invention of print-
ing, 291, 292 ; old fashions of, 292 ;
used as type-name after intro-
duction of roman, 292 ; obscurity
of early forms of manuscript, 293 ;
one of the two styles selected by
early printers, 293 (see also note
2); remarks upon pointed, 294
(see also note 2), 295; pointed
form of, commended by Moxon
and selected by Pickering, 295,
296; strictly German styles of,
not used for book-texts by Eng-
lish publishers, 296, 297 ; example
of, and remarks upon, Flemish
style of, 296; designers of early
forms of, avoided hair-lines, 302;
remarks upon, and example of,
French form of, 302, 303; other
forms of, devised by German type-
founders, 305; remarks upon new
fashions of. introduced by Amer-
ican type-founders, 306, 307; the
Morris Troy type a new form
of, 361; the Bradley style of, 314
Blades, William, on type-founding
in the Netherlands, 92; his re-
view of the types of the En-
schede Foundry, 253 (note); on
the business relations of Caxton
and Mansion, 297 (note)
Blaew, William Jansen, a distin-
guished Dutch printer, 197
Blanket, injurious effect of elastic,
under heavy impression, 52
Bodoni,Giambattista, Italian typog-
rapher, "Manuale Tipogranco
of, cited, 56 (note) ; ability of, as
superintendent of the Press of
the Propaganda, 90; makes Du-
cal Printing House at Parma first
in Europe, 90; his peculiar styles
of roman and italic, 90; styles
of, disliked by Morris, 207 ; brief
popularity of styles of, 209 ; char-
acteristics of new forms of letter
introduced by, 217, 218
Body, in types, illustration of va
rious dimensions of, 29 ; descrip-
tion of, 31 ; regular and irregular,
58, 59; display and ornamental
tvpes usually cast on regular, 59 ;
differences of, 106 ; name of type
determined by size of, 110; to
find the size of, 110, 111 (see also
note 1) ; irregularity of, a serious
fault, 124; beginning of irregu-
larity in, 126: readjustment of,
in France, 142, 143 ; comparative
table of three different systems
of, 157: change of, in English
types. 158; relations as to ems
existing between types of differ-
ent, 179 (see also note), 180 ; reg-
ular and irregular progression of,
illustrated, 181
Body-mark, or Stem, in types, il-
lustration of, 29 ; description of.
30; in pica, 36; in pearl, 36;
should seem to be uniform, 49 <
improved joining of serif and, 51
Bold-face, limitations of modern.
211 ; example of modern, on pica
211 ; many sizes needed to com-
plete series of, 246; superiority
of, over earlier fat-face, 284; con-
densed forms of, 284, 285; re-
marks upon the Aldine, 285 ; ex-
amples of condensed and extra
condensed, 285; condensed old-
style, 288; De Vinne, examples
of, and remarks upon, 288, 289
Book, the earliest bearing printed
date, 72; first, entirely in Greek,
85; first, entirely in Hebrew, 85:
first printed, in the English lan-
guage, 297 (see also note)
Books, early printed, conies of the
manuscript model, 82 ; blanks left
for decorations in early, seldom
filled, 83
Book-type, roman, requires en-
graving of nearly one hundred
and fifty punches for font of, 12,
13 ; modern, seldom cut in series,
108 ; sizes embraced in series of,
240; importance of distinctness
in, 254
Book-work, types larger than great-
primer rarely used for, 108
Borders, added by professional il-
luminator to early printed books,
82 ; space left for, in some early
printed books, 83 ; marked merit
of those used by early French
printers, 86
Borussian, a useful letter for legal
formularies, 306; examples of
bold-face and light-face, 306
Bourgeois (9-point), illustration of
body of, 29 ; classed as an irregu-
lar body, 58; capital and lower
case alphabets of, 60, 61; prob-
able origin of name, 66; exam-
ples of, solid and leaded, 90, 91 ;
standard width of, 114
Digitized by VaOOQlC
384
Index
Bradford, William, first printer in
New York, sketch of, 211
Bradford face. See Romische
Brass, not a practical substitute
for type-metal, 9
Brasses, or Brass-leads, in printing,
strips of rolled brass used as leads
in many newspaper offices, 108
Breitkopf, John Gottlob Imman-
uel, wide reputation of German
type-foundry established by, 91
Brevier (8-point), illustration of
body of, 29 ; remarks upon dura-
bility of, 36; classed as a regular
body, 58; capital and lower-case
alphabets of, 60, 61 ; probable ori-
gin of name, 66 (see also note);
examples of, solid and leaded, 92,
93; standard width of, 114. See
also Four-line brevier
Brilliant (4-point), capital and low-
er-case alphabets of, 60, 61; a
size belonging to this century, 68 ;
examples of, solid and leaded,
104, 105
Brito, John, of Bruges, curious
characters of, 93
Broad-face, reasons for introduc-
tion of, 116 (note), 225; favored
by publishers for juvenile school-
books, 116 (note) ; examples of, on
10-point body, 225, 226 ; defects of,
226
Bruce, David, head of the noted
type-founding family, emigrates
to New York, 103; with his
younger brother, begins business
as printer, 103; goes to London
in search of information about
stereotyping, 103 ; returns to New
York and adds stereotyping to
his business, 103; his valuable
inventions, 103, 287
Bruce, David, Jr., son of David,
two patents granted to, 24 (note
3); devises force-pump attach-
ment to mould, 26 (note) ; invents
a type-casting machine, 26 (note) ;
other improvements of, 26 (note) ;
studies mechanics of type-casting
at an early age, 103; his inven-
tions, 103
Bruce, David Wolfe, youngest son
of George, succeeds his father,
103 ; produces an unusually com-
plete series of penman scripts,
103 ; retires from business, 103 ; his
successors, 103
Bruce, George, brother of David,
introduces Columbian as a text-
type, 64; becomes his brother's
business partner, 103 ; an enthu-
siastic and indefatigable punch-
cutter, 103 ; his services to type-
founding, 103; first practical
attempt at the establishment of
correct proportions of types in
America made by, 146, 147; his
system of progression of type
bodies, 147, 149 ; regular progres-
sion of type-bodies in system of,
illustrated, 181
Bruges, Carton's first types proba-
bly made at, 93
Buell, Abel, earlv American type-
founder, 102
Bullock, William, inventor of the
Bullock press, sketch of, 278
Buhner, William, eminent English
printer, Shakespeare Press ably
managed by, 101
Bur, in type-casting, description of,
24 (see also notes 2 and 3) ; impor-
tance of removal of, 47
Cambridge, University of, rejects a
condition imposed by the French
Academy on purchase of Greek
types, 96
Canon (48-point), widely known as a
type name, 57 ; capital and lower-
case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; descrip-
tion and origin of name of, 62
Capitals, number of roman, in font,
12; variation in angles of, 14, 15 ;
imitations of Roman lapidary let-
ters, 186; when, where, and by
whom first made in type, 187 ,- in-
adequate supply of large sizes of
roman, 242; need for three widths
of roman, 246, 247; the frailty of
the modern-cut two-line, 248, 249 :
reasons for popularity of old-
style, 249; introduction of con-
densed, 256; use of condensed,
for book titles carried to excess,
257
Capitals, Small, first appearance of.
187 ; weakness of, 236; ineffective
in print, 236; suggestion of an
improvement in, 236
Caslon, William, of London, ablest
type-founder of the eighteenth
century, and his successors, 98
Caslon face or style, made unpopu-
lar by an arbitrary standard, 118;
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Index
385
contrasted with the modern-face,
189; peculiarities of, 191, 192;
modern-face in strong contrast
to, 192
Catholicon of 1460, attributed to
Gutenberg, 79
Caxton, William, the first English
printer, type on paragon body
favored by, 63 ; used a type face
similar to that of Mansion, 80;
first types of, show Flemish man-
nerisms, 93 ; reticent concerning
typography, 93 ; peculiarities of
his later types, 93 ; some of his
books printed at Paris and Rouen,
93; first book in the English lan-
guage printed by, 297 (see also
note); remarks upon, and ex-
ample of, type used by, 297, 298
Celtic, remarks upon, 325, 326, 327
examples of, 326
Cennini, Bernard, of Florence, on
the characters of his books, 77
Century broad-face, the, made by
the De Vinne Press, 377 ; use and
characteristics of, 377
Century face, the, introduction of,
231; example of, 376; designed
for "The Century Magazine,"
376; characteristics of, 376; meets
with general approval, 376; ad-
vantage of, 376
Chapel text, a modern variation of
the old church text, 310 ; remarks
upon, 310, 311 ; example of, 311
Characters, uniformity of, 11 ; capi-
tals, small capitals, and lower-
case, number of, in font, 12 ; of
other kinds, 12 ; irregular heights
of, 13, 14; one mould used for a
font of, 43 ; should please when
alone and in composition, 49;
number of, in different fonts, 166,
167; apportionment of, necessa-
rily varied for different languages,
167, 168; table exhibiting num-
ber of, in a font of roman and
italic, 169; peculiar, not kept in
stock, 173 ; weakness of the mi-
nor, 240 ; vagueness of, never tol-
erated for serious books, 360;
unwise preference of first Italian
printers for large roman, 369
Charles vu, King of France, sends
Jenson to Mainz, 865
Chiswick Press, the, Basle old-style
of, 198. 199 (see also note 1) ; sketch
of its founder, 199
Church, Dr. William, of America,
British patent for type-casting
machine received by, 263
Church text, a graceful ecclesiastic
letter, 309 ; examples of, 310
Clarendon, lighter faces of, pre-
ferred as emphasizing letters
over small capitals, 236; exam-
ples of, 331
Clymer, George, inventor of Co-
lumbian printing-press, sketch of,
220
Colson, M., uses iron and tin in
type-metal, 35 (note)
Columbian (16-point), a neglected
body, 64 ; first made in text-type
by George Bruce of New York,
64; examples of, 80, 81
Composing-room, wear of types in,
37
Composite, example of, 305 ; a use-
ful letter for legal formularies,
305,306
Composition, rudely cut or badly
fitted type mars effect of, 49;
various methods of measuring,
118, 120, 121; weight of six-to-
pica leads in, 177, 178
Composition. See Type-setting
Compositor, advantages of news-
paper work over book-work to
the, 118
Compressed-face, example of, 216;
preferred in France and Spanish
America, 217
Conner, James, a type-founder of
New York, first electrotype ma-
trix used in foundry of, 18 (note) ;
begins business as stereotyper,
103 ; makes first American stereo
type edition of New Testament,
103; complete series of Scotch
face probably first shown in
America by, 213
Copley type, example of on double
great-primer body, 250
Copper, an occasional constituent
of type-metal, 9, 32, 33 : is not a
practical substitute for type-
metal, 9 ; sulphate of, needed in
electrotyping, 18; a solution of,
used in copper -facing, 41
Copper-facing, the invention of, 41 ;
description of the process, 41; ad-
vantages of, 41 ; differs from elec-
trotyping, 41, 42 ; expense of, 42
Cortelyou, Peter C., type-founder,
sketch of, 104
Digitized by LjOOQLC
386
Index
Cottrell, Thomas, an English type-
founder, and his successors, 100
Counter, in types, illustration of,
29; descriptionof, 30; shallow, 36;
should be sufficiently deep, 48
Counter-punch, description of, 15,
16; utility of, 16
Crapelet, GS-. A., a distinguished
French printer and publisher,
sketch of, 276
Current, action of electric, in elec-
trotyping, 18 ; use of galvanic, in
copper-facing, 41
Cushing style, or Monotone, intro-
duction of, 231 ; example of, 250
Cylinder machine, certain types not
suited for, 49, 50
-Dalton, Michael, an American type-
founder, 104
Day, John, an eminent English ty-
pographer, biographical sketch
of 94 95
Decree,' French, of 1649, 274
Delusions, optical, necessary in the
designing of types, 14, 15
Derriey, Jacques Charles, a French
type-founder, specimen album of,
Descenders, types with long, 49,
50 ; types with short, 50
DeVinne Press, introduction of
Century face for, 231 ; Renner
type made for, 368; Century
broad-face made for, 376
DeVinne type, the, examples of,
and remarks upon, 288, 289, 373
Diamond (4}-point), popular as a
type name, 57 ; is classed as an
irregular body, 58 ; the capital and
lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61;
first made, probably, by Voskens
of Amsterdam, 67; selected by
Pickering for his miniature edi-
tions of the classics, 68; examples
of, 102, 103; standard width of, 114
Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, English
bibliographer, 94, 101
Dickinson, Samuel Nelson, a noted
American type-founder, 104; de-
signs the Scotch-face type, 104,
212; first specimen-book of, 104;
his successors, 104 ; sketch of his
career, 201
Didot, Ambroise Firmin-, a French
printer and publisher, 224
Didot, Firmin-, special mixture of
type-metal used by, 35 (note))
produces practicable stereotype
plates, 97 ; biographical sketch of,
218
Didot, Francois, first of a long line
of French typographers, 203
Didot, Francois- Ambroise, a noted
French printer and type-founder,
point system of, 142, 143 ; defect
in the point system of, 145 (see
also note 1), 146 (see also note) ;
size of point devised by, 155 (see
also note) ; sketch of his life, 215
Didot, Henri, French type-foun-
der, invents a " polymatype "
mould, 22, 24 (see also note 1);
cuts the letters for a font called
micro8Copique, 68, 322; sketch
of, 322
Didot, Hyacinthe, brother of Am-
broise Firmin-Didot, 277
Didot, Jules, son of Pierre, sketch
of, 276
Didot, Pierre Francois, a French
type-founder, paper-manufactu-
rer, and publisher, 279
Diphthongs, five series of, 240
Display, former restrictions con-
cerning, 255, 256
Distributor, failure of first prac-
tical type-setting machine due to
lack of, 265 ; use of, in connection
with type-setting machine, 354
Doric, example of, 324; remarks
upon, 325
Double english (28 -point), capital
and lower-case alphabets of, 60,
61 ; example of, 74
Double great-primer (36-point),
capital and lower-case alphabets
of, 60, 61 ; example of, 73
Double* paragon (40-point). capital
and lower-case alphabets of; 60,
61; example of, 72
Oouble pica (24-point), capital and
lowercase alphabets of, 60, 61 :
Doub . . _ ,. .
tal and lower-case alphabets of,
60, 61 ; known in England as dou-
ble pica, 63 ; examples of, 76, 77
Dressing-rod, in type-casting, de-
scription of, 24, 25
Drive, description and construc-
tion of, 17; conversion of, into
matrix, 18
Ducal Printing House. See Print-
ing House, Ducal
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Index
387
Dupre, Jean, early French printer,
statement of, concerning engrav-
ing in relief on copper, 84
Durer, Albert, German painter and
engraver, models for types de-
vised by, 11 ; his diagrams for the
formation of letters, 12 (note);
favors the roman character, 91
Electrotyping, definition of, 10;
matrices made by, 18, 19 ; experi-
ments in, by Americans and oth-
ers, 18 (note); supplants stereo-
typing in book-work, 40, 41 ; dif-
fers from copper-facing, 41, 42
Elzevir, Daniel, his types made by
Van Diik, 67, 68
Elzevir, Louis, and his descen-
dants, sketch of, 200
Elzevir style, the, remarks upon,
199 (see also note 2), 200 (see also
note), 201 ; examples of, 200, 201 ;
often preferred by French pub-
Ushers, 215
Em, or Em quadrat, in printing, the
American unit of measure, 113;
rules as to fractions of, 113 ; its
unfairness as a measure, 117, 118
Emerald, an English text-type, 67
En, or En quadrat, the English unit
of measure, 121; a change pro-
posed in size of, 164
England, distinction between two-
line and double-bodied types not
well observed in, 59 ; the roman
form of letter introduced into, by
Pynson, 93; black-letter never
wholly in disuse in, 93 ; supplied
with best types by early type-
founders of Rouen, 294
English (14-point), classed as an ir-
regular body, 58; capital and
lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61 ;
one of the oldest of bodies, 64;
origin of name, 64 ; examples of,
82, 83. See also Double english
Engraver's hair-line, example of,
219 ; supplanted by other forms
of light-face, 220
Engraver's roman, examples of,
289,290
Engraving, of the early printers,
sometimes done on brass, copper,
or type-metal, 84
Enschede, Isaac, establishes the
celebrated Haarlem type-foun-
dry, 92
Estienne (or, in English, Stephens),
Henry, eminent French printer,
and his descendants, 320
Excelsior (3-point), used in America
for music, piece-fractions, and
borders only, 68 ; apparently the
same as the English minikin,
68
Expanded-f ace, example of, 227
Face, in types, description of, 30 ;
choice of, 48, 49 ; types with broad,
50; words used to distinguish va-
rieties of, 113, 114; illustration of
different widths of, 115; Scotch -
face supplants types of wider and
rounder, 116 (note); thinner in
England and France than in
America, 116 (note) ; methods ob-
served in naming, 182; roman,
in most request, 184
Fat-face, or Title, abroad and thick
style of roman, 184; Thome's
form of, lasts for many years,
209 ; example of, on paragon body,
210; characteristics of, 281, 282;
accepted for display and title
lines, 282 ; examples of early and
modern styles of, 282, 283; for-
merly sometimes used as a text-
letter, 282 (see also note); re-
marks upon italic, 283; newer
forms of, better known as bold-
face, 284; remarks upon extended,
286; old-style peculiarities ap-
plied to, 287; example of old-style,
287; rejection of Thorne and
Didot forms of, 370
Feather-edge, in type-casting, 27
Feet, in types, illustration of, 29;
description of, 31
Fell, John, English scholar and
prelate, presents type-foundry to
Oxford University, 96
Fergusson, James, of Scotland, plan
of, for securing the uniformity of
type bodies, 132, 133
Fifteenth Century Stvle, remarks
upon, 366, 367, 374, 375
Figgins, Vincent, eminent English
type-founder, his achievements
and successors, 101
Figures, number of, in font, 12;
not provided for all fonts of large
type, 166; superior, furnished
only to order, 174; features of
old-style and modern-cut, 237;
cast on the n-set, 237 ; made on a
wider set, 238; difficulty of dis-
Digitized by VaOOQlC
388
Index
tinguishing certain, 238, 239 (see
also note 1)
Firm-face, characteristics and ex-
ample of, 229
Fitting-up, in type-making, defini-
tion of, 10; a nice operation, 18
Five-line pica (60-point), example
of, 70
Florence, early printers of, 80
Font, uniformity of characters in
a full, 11; definition of, 32; all
characters of, cast in one mould,
43; unequal heights of different
characters of same, 46; impor-
tance of harmony of characters
in, 49 ; dissimilarity in bodies of
the same name, 124, 125; the un-
equal apportionment of charac-
ters in, 165; a table exhibiting
number of characters in a so-
called complete, 169; scheme for
one - thousand • pound, 169 -171 ;
piece fractions not proper part
of, 174; directions for using a
new, 174; how weight of, is com-
puted, 174, 175 ; economy of large
and well-sorted, 175, 176; capacity
of, largely extended by use of
leads, 177 ; three series of charac-
ters in every complete roman,
185; addition of italic to roman,
185; number and cost of punches
and matrices needed for full, 339;
sizes of, for plain display and
ornamental types, 340
Foreman, Andrew, casts first types
made in California, 104
Forme, Lettre de, French bibliogra-
{)her8' name for pointed black-
etter, 293 (see also note 2)
Founders. See Type-founders
Four-line brevier (32-point), 62
Four-line pica (48-polnt), example
of, 71
Fournier the elder, Le Be foundry
bought and sustained by, 87
Fournier, Pierre-Simon, the young-
er, " Manuel Typographique " of,
cited, 11 (note), 16 (note), 20 (note) ;
his estimate of the production of
French hand-caster, 26 ; constitu-
ents of his hard and soft type-
metal, 32 (note), establishment of
type-foundry of, 89 ; invention of
point system of tjrpe bodies by,89 ;
explanation of his system of ty-
pographic points by, 133-138;
remarks on point system of, 138 ;
illustration of fixed scale of, 139;
description and illustration of
implements used by, 140, 141 (see
also note) ; advantages promised
by system of, 141 ; object of his
system, 141, 142; concurrent use
of the point systems of Didot
and, 143, 144; Didot's eleven-
point body wrongly attributed
to, 144; some Parisian printers
prefer system of, 146 (see also
note) ; true inventor of the point
system, 155; condensed form of
letter introduced to French print-
ers by, 215
Fox, John, English author, 94
Fractions, number of, in font, 12;
usually furnished with roman
fonts from pearl to pica, 173 ;
scheme of, 173 ; n-set too narrow
for, 237, 238; made on the m-set,
238
Fractur, early admirers of, 91 ; ac-
cepted as the standard German
text-type, 91 ; is not favored by
Latin races or by English-speak-
ing peoples, 91 ; contrasted with
black-letter, 93 ; the only serious
rival of roman in general litera-
ture, 184 ; never selected by Eng-
lish publishers, 296, 297 ; example
of, 303 ; still retains its old popu-
larity in Germany, 303 (see also
note); preferred for newspapers
and ordinary books, 304 ; example
of, 304
France, types of Jenson copied in
books printed in, 80 ; becomes su-
perior to Italy in the art of mak-
ing books attractive, 86 ; coopera-
tion of eminent publishers and
Erinters with designers of, 86;
nprovement of type-founding
in, 91 ; early English printers de-
pendent on those of, 93 ; printers
of, alter the italic of Alans, 187 ;
condensed faces popular in, 215,
216 ; early Englishprinters favor
type-founders of, 297
Francis of Bologna, punches for
Aldus's new italic cut by, 80
Franklin, Benjamin, an American
philosopher, statesman, and
author, purchases in Paris com-
plete equipment for a type-foun-
dry, 102, 155 (note); with his
grandson, begins type-founding
in Philadelphia, 102, 155 (note);
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Index
389
his birth and achievements, 195 ;
laments innovations in printing,
360
Franklin face, the, example of, 195
French- face, standard of thirteen
ems affects use of, 118 ; specimen
of condensed, 215; example of
eighteenth-century, 218
Froben, John, of Basle, devises a
nonpareil for black-letter edition
of Bible, 67 ; remarks upon a style
occasionally used by, 250
Fry, Joseph, English type-founder,
and his successors, 100
Furniture, in printing, made to
multiples of pica, 64, 145, 146
Fust. John (with Peter Schceffer),
earliest book bearing printed
date published by, 72
Garamond, Claude, " father of let-
ter-founders," 86; his characters
much admired, 86 ; Greek charac-
ters of, 88 ; supplies Plantin with
punches and matrices, 92 ; remod-
els italic capitals, 187
Gauge, for type-bodies, illustration
of, 152; for neight-to-paper, illus-
tration of, 153. See also Type-
gauge
Ged, William, of Edinburgh, the in-
ventor of a process of stereotyp-
ing, 97, 283
German-text, ornamented letters of
"Theuerdank" is the model of
modern, 91 ; how emphasis or dis-
play is secured in, 186 ; example
of, 303 ; retains its old popularity
in Germany, 303 (see also note) ;
used in ornamental job-printing,
304 ; example of modern, 305
Germany, type-metal of, 32 (note) ;
use of numerical names of types
limited in, 55 (note) ; readers in,
slow to accept the roman charac-
ter, 91 ; adherence to pointed let-
ters in, 91 ; mongrel romans in-
troduced in, 367
Golden type, the, made by William
Morris after Jenson model, 206;
example of, 207; causes which
impelled Morris to design, 361;
Morris not entirely content with,
361. See also Kelmscott Press and
Morris, William
Gordon, George P., American print-
er and inventor, birth of, 225;
makes improvements in small
47
printing-machines, 225; patents
machine now known as Gordon
press, 225
Gothic, simplest and rudest of all
styles, 184 ; bibliographers' name
for black-letter, 291 (see also note);
round, one of the two styles se-
lected by early printers, 293, 294
(see also note 1) ; revival of round,
299; is a misleading name, 315;
a probable origin for name, 315;
its English names, 315; remarks
upon, 315, 316; examples of five
styles of, 316; remarks upon dif-
ferent faces of, 317; old-style
figures of, 317 ; remarks upon ex-
tended, 317 (see also note); five
examples of condensed, 318 ; ex-
tra condensed and hair-line, 318 ;
merit of, 318; defects of, 319;
usefulness of lining, 319,320; ex-
amples of different styles of, 320 ;
examples of eccentric styles of,
321; inclined forms of , 321, 322;
examples of condensed italic, 322;
used by early Venetian printers,
369
Granjon, Robert, French punch-
cutter, boldness and originality
of, 89; first punch -cutter to the
Press of the Propaganda, 90;
famous series of orientals begun
by, 90; supplies Plantin with
punches ana matrices, 92 : Plan-
tin's favorite designer, 92; re-
marks upon a style probably
drawn by, 250
Great-primer (18-point), classed as
a regular body, 58; capital and
lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61;
probable origin of its name, 63 ;
Rowe Mores and Reed on, 63 (see
also note) ; called text in Holland,
Italy, and Spain, 63 (note); exam-
ples of, solid and leaded, 78, 79;
few roman faces of decided char-
acter made on bodies larger than,
191. See also Double great-primer
Greek, first volume entirely in,
printed at Milan in 1476, 85
Greeley, Horace, American journal-
ist, author, and politician, bio-
graphical sketch of, 213
Gregory ix, Pope, remarks upon
the Decretals of, 66
Gregory xiii, Pope, most notable
Italian type-foundry, established
by order of, 90
Digitized by LjOOQLC
390
Index
Groove, in types, illustration of,
29; description of, 31
Grosse batarde, Flemish, Caxton's
capitals retain peculiarities of,
93 ; first book in the English lan-
guage printed in, 297 (see also
note); first used by Caxton in
England, 297; not favored by
English readers, 297, 298; revival
of, 298; example of, 298. Also
once known as Old Flemish black
and Secretary
Gutenberg, John, of Mentz, named
by Zell, Trithemius, and John
Schoeffer as inventor of printing,
78; confirmed by tablets to his
memory, and by writings of fif-
teenth century, 78, 79; pointed
and round gothic faces used by,
81; two bodies of english made
by, 81 ; Bible-text of, 91 ; works
attributed to, 294 (note 1)
Gutta-percha, not suitable for
types, 10
Haarlem Type-foundry, the foun-
dries absorbed by, 92 ; largest in
Holland, 92; celebrated for its
orientals, 92. See also Enschede,
Isaac
Hagar, William, an American type-
founder, begins business in New
York, 103
Hair-line, in types, illustration of,
29; description of, 30; in pica,
36; in pearl, 36; should have a
sloping base, 48 ; types with long
and sharp, 49, 50; supported by
broad base in modern light-faced
types, 51; frailty of the sharp,
230 ; should have a visible thick-
ness, 230; maintenance of the
sharp, 252; limitations of, 253;
need for thicker, 253 (see also
note) ; delicacy of, in large types,
258. 259; Caslon old-style charac-
terized by firm, 268
Hand-casters, French and English,
production of, per day, 26
Hand-casting, earliest method of,
25,26
Hand-press, permanence of, 358
Hansard, Thomas Curson, English
» printer and author, on irregular-
ities of type bodies, 123; early
and later Caslon type bodies
compared by. 128 (see also note 2) ;
44 Typograpnia " of, cited, 133;
on the book-printing of his day,
241 (note); denounces fat-faced
black, 301 (see also note 1); ex-
tract from "Typograpnia" of,
333 (note)
Harper, James, founder of print-
ing and publishing firm now
known as Harper & Brothers, 226
Hebrew, first book entirely in,
printed at Soncino in 1488, 85
Henry viii, King of England, or-
ders prayer-book printed for his
subjects, 63 (note)
Herbort, John, partner of Jenson,
365
Hoe, Richard March, an American
printing-press manufacturer, 223
Holland, numerical names of types
on point system partially adopted
in, 56 (note) ; English demand for
punches made in, 97
Houghton, Henry O., an American
printer and publisher, 228; un-
conventional book titles of, 244
(note)
Illuminator, initials and borders
added to early printed books by
Erof essional, 82 ; certificate of, to
iible of 42 lines, 82
Imperial Printing House. See
Printing House, Imperial
Impression, in printing, variations
of, for different types, 51, 52;
effect of, upon light-faced and
bold-faced types, 52
Initials, added by the professional
illuminator to all early printed
books, 82; those of the Psalter
of 1457 printed in two colors, 82:
space left for, in some early
S tinted books, 83 ; those of Rat-
olt probably cut in high relief
on metal, 84; white letters on
gray groundwork, devised by
early printers, 84 ; marked merit
of those used by early French
printers, 86
Instruments, measuring, needed in
punch-cutting, 14
Ionic, example of, 324; remarks
upon, 326
Iron, use of, in type-metal, 33 (see
also note)
Italian, a form of roman, peculiar-
ity of, 184
Italic, variations in font of 14, 15 ;
bad fitting not infrequent in some
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Index
391
older fonts of, 45; should mate
with roman, 48; that of Gara-
mond much admired, 86 ; Bodoni's
peculiar style of, 90; always ac-
companies full font of roman,
172 ; a simplified style of discon-
nected script, 184; an inseparable
mate of roman, 185; first ex-
hibited by Aldus in his octavo
edition of Virgil, 187, 270; the
text letter in many books of
Aldus, 187 ; modern uses of, 269 ;
difficult to cut and cast, 269, 270 ;
few forms of faultless, 270 (see
also note): remarks on original
old-style, 270, 271 (see also note
1); rude forms of old, 271 (see
also note 2) ; the Baskerville, 271 ;
example and description of mod-
ernized old-style, 272; example
of Elzevir, 273 ; peculiarities and
illustration of French old-style,
274 ; example of the modern bold-
face, 275; rarity of light -faced,
275; examples of modern French
light-face, a condensed French -
face, and an eighteenth-century
French-face, 276, 277; different
attitudes of American, English,
and French publishers toward,
277 ; example of engraver's hair-
line, 278 ; inclined roman a French
variety of, 278; remarks upon,
and example of, law, 279; de-
scription of elongated, 280; re-
marks upon figures and small
capitals of, 280; gothics of in-
clined form usually named, 321 ;
remarks upon, and examples of,
gothic condensed, 321, 322
Italy, numerical names of types on
point system partially adopted
in. 56 {note)\ valuable improve-
ments made by printers of, 85;
decadence of typography in, 90
Jackson, Joseph, a noted English
type-founder, sketch of, 100, 101 ;
wider and rounder faces of, sup-
planted by Scotch-face, 110 {note)
Jacobi, Professor, of St. Peters-
burg, his successful electroty-
ping experiments, 18 (note)
James, Thomas, an English type-
founder, sketch of, 97
Jannon, J., a printer of Sedan, 67
Jaugeon, Nicolas, French archaeol-
ogist and mechanician, recom-
mends rules and diagrams for the
designing of letters, 12 (note) ; re-
ceives commission from Louis
xiv to make a truly "royal"
type, 87 ; new types of, inferior
in legibility and durability, 87
Javal, Dr., French optician, re-
marks of, on use of serifs, 250 ; on
the readability of types, 260 ; on
the evolution of typography, 334
Jenson, Nicolas, of Venice, on the
cutting and casting of his types,
77, his types copied in books
printed in France, 80 ; roman and
round gothic made by, 81 ; roman
perfected by, in 1471, 85; romans
modeled after designs of, 88;
capital and lower-case letters of,
model for type-founders, 187;
books in round gothic printed by,
294 (note 1) ; biographical sketch
of, 365
Jenson type, the, remarks upon,
364; example of, 365
Jet, in type-casting, description of,
24 (see also note 3)
John and Windelin of Speyer, re-
marks upon types used and books
Srinted by, 366, 367, 368
n of Cologne, associated with
Jenson, 365
John of Westphalia, begins print-
ing at Alost in 1474, 80
Johnson, Lawrence, a printer, es-
tablishes stereotype foundry at
Philadelphia, 102 ; his successors,
102; Cincinnati branch foundry
established by, 105
Johnson, William, invents a type
casting machine, 26 (note)
Jordan, J. C, successful electro
typing experiments of, 18 (note)
Junius, Francis, punches and mat-
rices collected by, 96
Justification, in typography, ad-
vantage claimed for point system
in, 160; difficulties of, 160, 161:
spaces on point sets an aid to, 164
KelmscottPres8, the, establishment
of, 207 ; example of Golden type
composed at, 207
Kern, in types, description of, 30,
31 ; should be well supported, 48 ;
unavoidable in italic, 269, 270
Koster, Laurens, the legends of a
Dutch invention by, 79 • bad type-
founding of, 92
Digitized by VaOOQlC
392
Index
Lead, a constituent of type-metal,
9, 32 (see also note)
Leads, in printing, graduated to
divisions of pica, 64, 145, 146;
difference in appearance of type
}>roduced by use of, 106, 107; ll-
ustration of various thicknesses
of, 107 ; high and low, 107 ; usu-
ally cast in a mould, 107, 108;
some made by rolling-machines,
108; made also of rolled brass,
108 ; capacity of a font extended
by use of, 177 ; space occupied by
one pound. 177; how to find re-
quired weight of, 177, 178 (see
also notes)
Leavenworth, William, adapts the
pantograph to the manufacture
of wood types, 348
Le Be, Guillaume, succeeds Gara-
mond as leading French type-
founder, 87; his descendants,
87
Letters, full-bodied, 12 ; ascending,
descending, and short, 13 ; varia-
tion in face heights of, 14 ; deter-
mination of proportions of, 15;
use of model, in electrotyping, 18 ;
kerned, 24, 32 ; illuminated ini-
tial, added to early printed books,
82 ; fashion of making white, 84 ;
adherence of Germans to pointed,
91 ; lean and condensed, 114 ; va-
rious sizes of, denned, 116 (see
also note) ; superior, furnished
only to order, 1*4 ; description of
swash, 187; specimens of six series
of two-line, 251 ; examples of con-
densed two-line, 256, 258 ; decline
in demand for highly ornamented.
359; demand for fantastic, 360;
Morris's aversion to classic, and
leaning to Teutonic forms of.
361 ; merit of the Kelmscott, 370
Lettre de forme, Lettre de somme.
See Forme, Somme
Light-face, example of, 222; char-
acteristics and example of mod-
ern French, 224; objections to,
228; many sizes needed to com-
plete series of, 246
Lindsay, James, type-founder, 103 ;
specimen of condensed Scotch-
face cut by, 214
Linotype (or Mergenthaler) ma-
chine, success of, largely due to
accuracy of matrices, 353 ; its con-
struction and operation, 354-356
Liter® florentes, Ratdolt's name
for decorative initials, 83
Long-primer (10-point), illustration
ofbody of, 29 ; classed as a regu-
lar body, 58; capital and lower-
case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; origin
of name, 65 (see also note 2) :
preferred for duodecimos, 66;
examples of, solid and leaded, 88,
89; standard width of, 114; illus-
tration of irregularities of mea-
surement in four faces of, 119
Lothian, George B., establishes a
type-foundry at Pittsburgh, Pa.,
102; his Greek faces much ad-
mired, 103
Lothian, Robert, of Scotland, fa-
ther of G. B. Lothian, begins a
type-foundry in New York, 102
Louis xiv, King of France, com-
missions Jaugeon to make a
"royal" type, 87
Lower-case, roman, as a name for
small letters, technical and not
generally understood, 185 (see
also note) ; an imitation of char-
acters of early French and Italian
copyists, 186 ; when, where, and
by whom first made, 187
Lyman, Nathan, American type-
founder, 104
Lyons, early founders of, supply
printers of all countries with
punches, matrices, and fonts of
type, 86, 87
MacFarland face, the, example of.
and remarks upon, 374, 375
Machine, Cylinder, Type-casting.
Type-revolving. See Cylinder,
Type-eastingjfype-revolvxng
MacKellar, Thomas, American
printer, sketch of, 229
Mainz. See Mentz
Making-ready, omission of, a cause
of wear in types, 37, 38; the
modern style of, 38; developed
by Joseph Alexander Adams, 219
Mansion, Colard, printer, uses types
similar to those of Jenson, 80:
curious characters of, 93 ; Blades
and Madden on Caxton's busi-
ness relations with, 297 (note)
Manutius, Aldus, Italian printer,
complains of piracy of his designs,
80 ; small capitals and italic first
made for, and shown by, 187:
italic the text-letter of many of
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Index
393
his books, 187 ; first italic exhib-
ited in bis Virgil of 1501, 187,
270
Mappa, Adam G., first type-founder
in New York, 102
Martens, Thierry, types of, 92
Martin. Robert and William, noted
English type-founders, sketch of,
101
Matrix, description and construc-
tion of, 17 ; conversion of drive
into, 18; also made by electro-
typing, 18 (see also note), 19; im-
presses the fluid metal, 26; bad
ntting-up of, 45, 46; frequently
sold at close of fifteenth century,
80; liable to imperceptible dis-
placement, 125
Mayeur, Gustave, revival of the
seventeenth-century, or Elzevir,
style by, 199 (see also note 2),
200 (see also note)-, Didot style
revived by, 219
Mecom, Benjamin, printer, nephew
of Franklin, attempts stereotyp-
ing, 102
Mentz, or Mainz, Bible of 42 lines
illuminated at, 74 ; the Bible of 36
lines believed to have been print-
ed at, 74 ; type-making and print-
big practised at, before 1460, 75
Meridian (44-point), 62
Microscopique (2-point — Didot), cut
by Henri TMdot, 68, 322
Milan, first volume in Greek printed
at, in 1476, 85
Miller, William, a Scottish type-
founder, and his successors, 101
Minikin. See Excelsior
Minion (7- point), illustration of
body of, 29 ; classed as an irregu-
lar body, 58, 66 ; capital and lower-
case alphabets of, 60, 61 ; origin
of its name, 66; examples of, 94,
95; standard width of, 114
Minionette (64-point), largely used
in Prance for combination bor-
ders, 66; passing out of use in
the United States, 66, 67 ; equiva-
lent of English emerald, 67
Minuscule, Dr. Taylor's name for
lower-case letters, 185 (note) ; the
Caroline, 186
Missal, the German name of canon
type. 62
Mitchel, William Haslett, Ameri-
can inventor of a practical type-
setting machine, 265
Mitchelson, David, a London die-
sinker, begins a type-foundry at
Boston, 102
Mittel. See English
Modern-face, the prevailing style
of roman type, 188; characteris-
tics of, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193
Monotone. See Gushing
Monotype, Lanston, description of,
and method of operation, 357
Mores, Edward Rowe, an English
antiquary and writer on typog-
raphy, explanation of " the Pie
by, 64, 65 ; purchases contents of
James foundry, 97
Morris, William, English poet, ar-
tist, and typographer, devises
a " Golden " type, based on Jen-
son's great-primer roman, 206,
361 ; contributes to this work an
example of it, text written by
himself, 208; favors quaintness
and medieval methods, 361; his
aversion to classic, and leaning
to Teutonic forms, 361 ; issues a
new form of black-letter, 361;
difficulties encountered by, in de-
signing the latter, 361, 362; re-
marks upon his new Troy type,
362 ; the reading world indebted
to, for a really masculine style,
362; types of, rejected by pub-
lishers as unfit for ordinary books,
368; marked influence exerted by
types of, 368, 370; his admirable
methods, 370. See also Kelmseott
Motteroz, Claude, French printer,
sketch of, 232
Motteroz face, the, characteristics
of, 231; adopted by Municipal
Council of Paris for its publica-
tions, 232; example of, 232, 233;
contrasted with the Didot style,
233
Mould, use of, in type - making, 9,
10 ; each matrix must be accurate-
ly fitted to, 17 ; all matrices of a
font adjusted to a single, 19;
trueness of, imperative, 19; de-
scription and construction of, 19,
20 (see also note), 21 ; efforts to
cast many types at one opera-
tion from a multiple, 22; Didot's,
not adopted by other founders,
24 ; its use in the process of hand-
casting, 25, 26; in stereotyping,
39; its set altered with almost
every change of matrix, 45 ; sim-
Digitized by VaOOQlC
394
Index
pie form of, used by early print-
ers, 81 ; liability of, to swell and
wear, 125
Moulding, papier-mache metbod of.
injurious to types, 37
Mould-making, definition of, 10
Moxon, Joseph, first English writer
on typography, scheme of, for de-
signing letters, 12 (note), 13; his
"Mechanick Exercises " cited, 20
(note) ; his moulds made of iron,
20 (note); his estimate of pro-
duction of English hand-caster,
26; statement of, as to use of
iron in type-metal, 33 (see also
note); bodies now called irregu-
lar unknown to, 58; his works
on typography, 96 ; his geometri-
cal formulae declared impractica-
ble, 96; names ten bodies most
used in England, 126, 127; rude
and uncouth old-style italic of,
271 (note 2)
Munsell, Joel, publisher and print-
er, sketch of, 214
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French,
despoils printing-offices of Propa-
fanda at Rome and of Medicis at
lorence, 88
National (or Royal or Imperial)
Printing House. See Printing
House, National
Neck, or Beard, in types, illustra-
tion of, 29 ; description of. 30
Netherlands, early printers of, use
type face similar to that of Jon-
son, 80; four bodies of english
made by unknown early printer
of, 81; improvement of type-
founding in, 91
Newton, Dr., of New York, invents
copper-facing, 41
Nick, in types, illustration of, 29 ;
description of, 31; it should be
clearly defined and different from
other faces of same body, 48
Nonpareil (6-point), illustration of
body of, 29; widely known as
type name, 57 ; classed as a regu-
lar body, 58 ; capital and lower-
case alphabets of, 60, 61; most
used of the small bodies, 67 ; in-
vention and earliest uses of, 67 ;
adjudged a marvel of letter-cut-
ting, 67 ; examples of, 96, 97 ; ad-
vertisements in, 106; standard
width of, 114
Non-pl US-ultra (2 -point), cast on
4-point body, 68
Old black, revival of lettre de
somme, or round gothic, under
name of, 299; example of, 299;
characteristics and uses of, 299
Old english, adheres closely to the
models of first printers, 93 ; gen-
erally accepted name of pointed
black-letter, 294; characteristics
and uses of, 294, 295; example
of, 295; preferred by Pickering,
295 ; commended by Moxon, 295,
296; more in fashion now than
formerly, 296; its abbreviations
used in facsimile reprints, 296
Old Flemish black. See Gross*
bdtarde
Old Roman, characteristics of, and
remarks upon, 378
Old-style, the Caslon, 98, 100; is a
subdivision of the roman form
of type, 188; characteristics of,
188, 191; example of, 189; de-
fects of, 192; features of mod-
ernized, 193, 194, 195 ; example of
large-faced, 196; example and
characteristics of original, 197;
the Basle, or early-Italian, de-
scribed and illustrated, 198, 199
(see also note 1) ; the Elzevir, or
seventeenth-century, examples
and peculiarities of, 199 (see also
note 2). 200 (see also note), 201 ;
Ronaldson, example of, 202;
French, example of, 203; con-
densed, preferred by French
f>rinters for dictionaries and cata-
ogues, 204; Portuguese, example
of, 204, 206; condensed types
made on model of, 266, 267, 268;
example of extra condensed, 268 ;
objectionable forms of condensed
and extra condensed, 288
Orientals, older forms of, have one
series of characters only, 185
Overlaying, present method of, de-
veloped in United States, 219.
See Adams, Joseph Alexander
Oxford, early type-founders at, 96
Pantograph, adaptation of, to the
manufacture of wood types, 348:
description and illustration of,
348-350
Paper, varieties of, destructive to
types, 38
Digitized by VaOOQlC
Index
395
Paragon (20-point), widely known
as a type name, 57; seldom se-
lected now by American or Eng-
lish founders, 63; favored by
Caxton and the printer of the
Bible of 42 lines, 63 ; called text
in Germany, 63; suitable book-
types not made upon this body,
108. See also Double paragon
Paris, the early founders of, supply
printers of all countries with
S lunches, matrices, and fonts, 86,
7 ; notable founders of, 87 ; books
printed at, for Caxton and his
successors, 93 ; return of Jensen
to, 365; thick-stemmed roman
types early made and used at,
Parker, Matthew, an English arch-
bishop and early patron of print-
ing, 94
Pearl (5-point), widely used as type
name, 57; classed as a regular
body, 58; capital and lower-case
alphabets of, 60, 61; is used for
pocket editions of Bible, prayer-
books, and small manuals, 67;
made famous by Jannon in his
so-called "Diamond" editions,
67 ; examples of, solid and leaded,
100, 101; standard width of, 114
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca),
Italian poet, italic of Aldus mod-
eled on handwriting of, 187 (see
also note)
Phonotype, its needed new charac-
ters not in general use, 235
Pica (12-point), spaces of, illustrat-
ed, 29; illustration of body of,
29 ; about one sixth of an inch in
thickness of body, 31; all sizes
above canon called by multiples
of, 57 ; classed as a regular body,
58 ; capital and lower-case alpha-
bets of, 60, 61 ; a favorite body
for octavos, 64 ; the standard unit
for determining sizes, 64; origin
of name, 64 ; Rowe Mores on, 64,
65 (see also note 1) ; examples of,
solid and leaded, 84, 85; a book
in, 106; standard width of, 114;
example and defects of an early
form of condensed, 262, 263; il-
lustration and characteristics of a
later form of, 263 ; early faces of,
too condensed, 263. 264; example
of, and remarks upon, extra con-
densed, 265. See also Double pica,
Four-line pica, Five-line pica, Six-
line pica
Pica, Friars de, origin of name, 65
Pickering, William, English pub-
lisher, selects diamond type for his
miniature editions of the classics,
68 ; requests Whittingham to re-
Srint a diary in old-style letter,
3; unconventional book titles of,
244 (note); uses pointed black-
letter for his Victorian edition of
Book of Common Prayer, 295
Pie, old English form of the Latin
name Pica, 64, 65
Pin-mark, in types, illustration of,
29; description of, 31
Plane, in type-casting, use of, 25
Plantin, Christopher, of Antwerp,
orientals cut Tby Le Be for, 8* ;
newer styles of, 92 ; various type-
founders work for, 92; GranJou
his favorite designer, 92; his
Flemish characters, 92
Plates, zinc and copper, action of
electric current on, 18, 19
Poetic-face, a condensed old-style
preferred in France for poetry,
204; example of, 205; great popu-
larity of, 216
Point, in typography, the Ameri-
can, 154, 155 (see also note) ; the
Fournier, 155 (see also note) ; the
Didot, 155; illustration of type
bodies based on American, 156
Points of punctuation, number of,
in font, 12; objections to italic,
239; a real need for inclined, 239
Point system, new names of types
according to, 54, 55; is partially
adopted in Italy, Spain, and Hol-
land, 56 (note) ; Fournier's expla-
nation of his, 133-138; advantages
promised by, 141 ; adopted oy
French type-founders, 141 ; Fran-
cois-Ambroise Didot devises a
new, 142, 143; concurrent use of
Fournier's and of Didot's, 143,
144 (see also note 1); preference
of the Parisian typographers for
Fournier's, 146 (see also note) ; the
American, 149, 150; adoption of
the latter by United States Type
Founders' Association, 150 ; basis
of the American, 152 (see also
note); comparison of Fournier's
with the American, 155 (note) ;
the American, adopted by many
founders, 159 ; too much expected
Digitized by LjOOQLC
396
Index
from, 159; helpful in algebraic
work, 161 ; applied to the set, or
width, of types, 161, 162 ; difficul-
ties of such application, 162, 163;
also applied to spaces, 163, 164;
irregular progression of type
bodies in American, illustrated,
181 ; type bodies clearly defined
by numerical names in, 182
Polyglot, London, of 1657, fourth
great Bible of the world, 95
Polymatype. See Didot, Henri, and
Pouchee, Louis John
Pouchee, Louis John, type-founder,
adopts Didot's polymatype meth-
od, 102
Presses, Cylinder, maybe injurious
to types, 37. See also Cylinder.
Presswork, is marred by rudely cut
or badly fitted type, 49; small
types produce the effect of weak-
ness in, 230 ; abandonment of old
methods of, 253
Price lists. See under Tables
Print, date of oldest verified, 69
Printers, bodies now called irregu-
lar unknown to early English,
58; early, engraved full-page bor-
ders and white initials on gray
groundwork, 84; early Italian,
made valuable improvements in
typography, 85; early French,
preferred the black-letter char-
acter, 86; improvements in typog-
raphy made oy French, 89; early
types of Dutch founders pre-
ferred by London, 96; early,
worked to great disadvantage,
106; a rude adjustable mould
used for casting types by first, 126
Printing?, weak and misty style of,
254; demand for quaintness in
decorative, 360; objections to
new fashions in, 360 ; Morris's re-
ported statement on the degrada-
tion of, 361
Printing House, Ducal, of Parma,
Bodoni invited to reconstruct and
manage, 90
Printing House, the Imperial, of
Vienna, celebrated for its large
collection of foreign types, 91
Printing House, National (or Royal
or Imperial), Le Be cuts orien-
tals for, 87 ; notable Paris type-
founders dwarfed by growth of,
87 ; its punch-cutter Luce disfig-
ures the roman character, 88 ;
high reputation of, 88; its typo-
graphical riches, 88, 89
Printing, type, date of oldest, 70 ;
practised at Mentz before 1460, 75
Printing-types. See Types
Propaganda, Press of the, punches
of, 90 ; Bodoni manager of, 90
Prototype, measuring instrument
usedbyFournier, 140, 141, 143
Psalter of 1457, earliest book bear-
ing a printed date, 72; its types
cast on bodies of double paragon
and double great-primer, 73 ; deco-
rated with red ink and large ini-
tials, 73 ; imprint of, 75 ; contains
great initials in two colors, 82;
printed by Fust and Schceffer,
293 (note 2)
Punch, description and construc-
tion of, 16, 17 ; impresses the ma-
trix, 26 ; frequently sold at close
of fifteenth century, 80; cut on
steel for roman and italic, 339, 340
Punch-cutter, the modern, not fet-
tered by arbitrary rules, 11, 12
(note) ; now he begins his work,
13-15; difficulties of the early,
100 ; different alms of the old and
the modern, 190 (see also note)
Punch-cutters, in American type-
foundries of the nineteenth cen-
tury, 289, 290
Punch-cutting, description of, 10-
17; secrets of, jealously guarded,
100
Punch-cutting machine, the Ben-
ton, features of the pantograph
successfully incorporated in, 350 ;
method of working, 350, 352, 353;
illustration of, 351; superiority
of punches produced by, 353
Pynson, Richard, English printer,
introduces into England the ro-
man form of letter, 93 ; many of
his punches and types brought
from Rouen, 93 ; Moxon's model
letters show no important depart-
ure from those used by, 300
Quotation marks, superiority of
French over English, 203, 204, 239
(see also note 2)
Ratdolt, Erhard, of Venice, proba-
bly the first to make true deco-
rative initials, 83 ; remarks upon
the latter, 84 ; accepts the model
introduced by Jenson, 367
Digitized by LjOOQLC
Index
397
Readers, needs of, not intelligently
regarded by type-founders, 253,
254; rights of, deserve more con-
sideration, 254
Reed, Sir Charles, an English type-
founder, 100
Reed, Talbot Baines, on the early
use of great-primer for text of Bi-
bles and prayer-books, 63 (note) ;
possible origin of name bourgeois
suggested by, 66 ; remarks of, on
breviaries, 66 (note) ; on the use
of black-letter in England, 93;
on Day's excellence as a type-
founder, 94; on the Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 96 ; on old English
foundries, 97; the author's in-
debtedness to, 100; on the achieve-
ments of the type-founder Fig-
gins, 101 ; on the Miller & Richard
foundry, 101
References, number of, in font, 12
Reglet, in printing, 145. 146
Renner, Franz, of Venice, accepts
type standard introduced by Jen-
son, 367; devises new style for
bis edition of the " Quadragesi-
male," 368; biographical sketch
of, 369
Renner type, the, designed after
style of Franz Renner, 368; its
characteristics, 368 ; example of,
369
Riverside face, example and char-
acteristics of, 228, 229; introduc-
tion of, a protest against effemi-
nacy of modern types, 231
Roman, variations in a font of, 14,
15 ; one face of italic used with
two or more faces of, 48; first
founded by Sweinheym and Pan-
nartz in 1465, 85; made perfect
by Jenson in 1471, 85; Tory
endeavors to extend the use of,
86; Oaramond's form of much
admired, 86; Bodoni's peculiar
style of, 90 ; lack of harmonious
series of faces in, 108, 109; full
font of, always accompanied with
italic, 172 ; characters omitted in
regular font of, 172; preferred
as text-letter by the English-
speaking peoples and the Latin
races, 184; largely used in Ger-
many for scientific books, 184,
185 ; every complete font of, be-
tween pearl and great-primer pro-
vided with three series of char-
acters, 185 (see also note) ; italic
an inseparable mate of, 185 ; ad-
dition of italic to font of, 185;
five correlated series of the al-
phabet in, 186; greatest merit
of, 186; capitals of, imitations
of Roman lapidary letters, 186;
subdivided into two classes, 188 ;
an object of experiment with
type-founders for nearly four
centuries, 191 ; defects of, most
noticeable in the smaller sizes,
230 ; little change in general form
of, 234, 235 ; rarity of large sizes
of, 241, 242 ; example of inclined,
278 ; called white-letter to distin-
guish it from black-letter, 292,
293 ; various styles of, for serious
books, 360 ; first made at Subiaco,
367; uncouth shapes of, not tol-
erated in fifteenth century, 367 ;
model of, selected by Renner, 369
Rdmische Antiqua and Versalien,
illustration of capitals of, 372;
remarks upon, 373, 374, 375; made
and sold in New York under the
name of Bradford face, 373
Ronaldson, James, partner of Bin-
ny, 102; receives loan of type-
founding apparatus bought by
Franklin, 155 (note); biographi-
cal sketch of, 202
Rouen, early founders of, supply
printers of all countries, 86, 87 ;
books printed at, for Caxton and
his successors, 93 ; early English
printers import their punches
and types from, 93, 294
Round-face, examples of, on pica and
Ions-primer bodies, 220, 221 ; pre-
vailing fancy for, 221; effective
in leaded composition with broad
margins, 221
Ruby. See Aaate
Rules, brass, in printing, basis for
sizes of, 64, 145, 146
Runic, examples of, 326, 327
Sanlecqne, Jacques de, French type-
founder, 87
Satanick type, example of, and re-
marks upon, 363
Saner, or Sower, Christopher, es-
tablishes type-foundry at Ger-
mantown, Pa., 102
Savage, William, author of a " Dic-
tionary of Printing," 128, 129;
his table of measurements of
Digitized by VaOOQlC
398
Index
bodies made by founders of Great
Britain, 129
Scheme (or Bill in Great Britain),
in typography, definition of, 165,
166; for different fonts, 166, 167;
obiect of the, 168; not exactly
alike in all foundries, 169 ; for a
. so-called complete font of roman
and italic, 169; for one-thousand-
poundfont, 169-171; of fractions,
173
Schoeffer, John, son of Peter, claims
Gutenberg as inventor of print-
ing, 78
Schoeffer, Peter, prints theGramma-
tica at Mentz, 76 ; round gothic,
or 8emi-gothic, of, 91 ; Latin Bible
of 1462 printed by, 294 {note 1).
See also Fust, John
Schwabacher, the early admirers of,
91 ; was never selected by English
publishers, 296, 297 ; example of,
303 ; still retains its old popular-
ity, 303 (see also note) ; rounder,
clearer, and simpler than the
fractur, 304 ; example of, 304
Sciences, Academie des, commis-
sion of, formulates rules for de-
signing letters, 12 (note)
Scotch-race, standard of thirteen
ems limits use of, 118; example
of, on lone-primer body, 212 ; ori-
gin and characteristics of, 212;
a complete series first shown in
America by James Conner, 212,
213 ; its grace acknowledged, 213 ;
objections to, 213 ; example of, on
10-point body, 213; example of
condensed, on english body, 214 ;
many sizes needed to complete
series of, 246
Script, lack of durability of, 35;
lighter impression necessary for
page of, 51, 52 ; modeled on some
fashion of letter used by early
copyists, 184; the line separating
italic from, not easily drawn, 279
Secretary, of old form. See Grosse
bdtarde
Sedan, so-called "Diamond" edi-
tions printed by Jannon at, 67
Sensenschmidt. John, prints Bam-
berg Missal of 1481 from largest
text-types, 84
Serif, in types, illustration of, 29;
description of, 30 ; should have a
sloping base, 48; should be of
uniform length, 49; types with
long and sharp, 49, 50 ; types with
stubby, 50; strengthened with
bracket-like curves in all modern
light-faced types, 51 ; Dr. JavaTs
remarks upon the use of, 250 ; its
place in typography, 253 ; absence
of, in gothic, 315, 316, 318
Set, in printing, definition of, 122
Shakespeare Press, admirable books
printed by, 101. See Bxdmer
Shells, electrotype, backing up of, 19
Shoulder, in types, illustration of,
29; description of, 30; should be
sufficiently low on body, 47, 48
Signs, number of, in font, 12 ; spe-
cial, not furnished in regular as-
sortment for font, 12
Six-line pica (72-point), example of,
69
Sixtus rv, Pope, confers the title of
Count Palatine on Jenson, 365
Slug, in printing, its description
and uses, 108
Small capitals. See Capitals, Small
Small-pica (11-point), illustration
of body of, 29 ; classed as an ir-
regular body, 58, 65; capital and
lower-case alphabets of, 60, 61;
in greater request than the regu-
lar body of pica, 65 ; examples of.
solid and leaded, 86, 87 ; standard
width of, 114. See also Double
small-pica
Societe Litteraire-Typographique,
Baskerville's types and his type-
making material sold to, 99
Somme, Lettre de, French bibliog-
raphers' name for round gothic,
293, 294 (see also note 1) ; revival
of, and remarks upon, 299
Soncino, first book entirely in He-
brew printed at, in 1488, 85
Sorts, in printing, definition of, 32
Sower. See Sauer
Spaces, in types, illustrated, 29;
table exhibiting point system ap-
plied to, 163 ; so-called patent, in
use in large book offices, 164
Spencer, Thomas, of Liverpool, a
successful experimenter in elec-
trotyping, 18 (note)
Squirt machine, invention of, 26
(note)
Standard, for measuring widths of
types, remarks upon, 114-122
Stanhope, Charles, third Earl Stan-
hope, English scientist, perfecter
of stereotyping, 97, 283
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399
Star Chamber, Decree of, 95
Starr, type-founders bearing family
name of, 18 (note), 103, 104
Stationers' Company, an injunction
of, 95
Stem, in types. See Body-mark
Stephens. See Estienne
Stephens, Robert, Garambnd makes
Greek characters under direction
of, 88
Stereotyping, moulding process of,
injurious to types, 37 ; its advan-
tages, 39 ; description of process,
39 ; freely made use of in America,
40; supplanted by electrotyping
for book- work, 40 ; benefits of, 40,
41 ; early processes of, 97 ; applied
to the casting of types, 346
straight-edge, its use in punch-cut-
ting, 14
Strasburg, able printers of classic
texts at, 91
Subiaco, first roman types made
at, 187, 367
Swash letters, example of, and re-
marks upon, 187 ; special form of
old-style italic, used by Leaden-
hall Press, 271 (note 1)
Sweinheym (Sweinheim, Sweyn-
heim) and Pannartz, printers
from Germany, first roman types
made by, 85, 187, 367
Tables— an exhibit of the American
and English names of types, 54 ;
French and German, 55 ; Italian,
Spanish, and Dutch, 56 ; relations
or all types to each other, 112 (see
also note); different widths for
type faces, 115; irregularities of
measuring types, 119; Moxon's
ten bodies most used in England,
127; Luckombe's proper dimen-
sions of bodies, 127. 128 (see also
note 1); lines of different sized
type in one foot, 129 ; a compara-
tive scale of ems in linear foot,
130; type bodies in point systems
of Fournier and Didot, 144; Bruce
system of geometrical progression
of type bodies, 148; the Ameri-
can point system of type bodies,
151; comparison of three scien-
tific systems of type bodies, 157 ;
sizes of English types, 158; point
system applied to spaces, 163;
characters in so-called complete
font of roman and italic, 169;
scheme for thousand-pound font,
170, 171; number of solid pages
composed with fonts of different
weights, 176; number of ems in
one pound of type of different
bodies, composition solid, 177;
the weight of six-to-pica leads in
composition, 177, 178; square
inches occupied by one thousand
solid ems of different types, 179 ;
relations of one thousand solid
ems of one body to other bodies,
180; price lists of: American Type
Founders Company, 338; English
and Scotch type-founders, 341;
French types, 342 ; German types,
343
Taylor, Bayard, American author,
sketch of, 278
Taylor, Dr. Isaac, English philolo-
gist and antiquarian, remarks of,
on the alphabet, 185 (note), 186
Teutonic, 305, 306; example of, 307
Text. See Great-primer and Para-
gon
Text-letters. See Text-types, Types
Text-types, beauty of, consists in
their precision, 11, 12; multipli-
cation of faces of, 53; of large
§uartos and folios, 63 ; largest in
ensenschmidt's Missal of 1481,
84; the three faces of greatest use-
fulness made in Italy, 85; the
roman model accepted as best,
183; quaint styles of, 359 et
seq.
Theorists, French, models for types
made by, 11
Theuerdank, or Theuerdanck, or-
namented letters of, the model of
modern German-text, 91
Thomas, Isaiah, printer and pub-
lisher, sketch of, 212
Thorne, Robert, an English type-
founder, designs a new series of
bold-face types, 100
Tin, a constituent of type-metal,
9, 32 (see also note), 33
Title. See Bold-face and Fat-face
Title-pages, closely graded series of
uniform face needed for, 242, 243,
244; reasons for unsatisfactory,
243, 244 (see also note); two-line
letters of three widths needed for,
246, 247, 248; use of condensed
capitals for, carried to excess, 257
Title-type. See Fat-face.
Torresani, Andrew, an Italian
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400
Index
printer, 66 ; procures strikes from
punches of Jenson roman, 365
Tory, Geoffrey, a French engraver
and printer, 12 (note); endeavors to
extend the use of roman letter, 86
Treadwell, Daniel, an American in-
ventor, sketch of, 275
Trithemius, the Abbot, describes
type-making, 76; names Guten-
berg as inventor of printing, 78
Trow, John F., of New York, first
practical type-setting machine
used in office of, 265
Troy type, designed by Morris on
the broad - faced form of round
gothic, 362; remarks upon, 362
Two-line pica. See Double pica
Type - casting, explanation of, 10 ;
once done by hand, now done by
machine, 22 ; always done by early
printers, 81
Type • casting machine, its moulds
made attachable to, 20; descrip-
tion and construction of, 20, 22,
24; illustration of the Bruce, 23 ;
its popularity, 27; improvements
of value added to it, 27 ; its great
defect, 27 ; the new forms of, 27 ;
Barth produces a complete, 27;
foreign inventors of, 27 ; descrip-
tion and illustration of the Barth,
27,28; machine for casting intro-
duced in Great Britain by Miller
& Richard, 101
Type-dressing, definition of, 10
Type-founders, secret formulas of,
32 ; new type always provided for
specimen-books of, 37 ; their pref-
erence for Latin phrases in old
specimen - books explained, 43,
44; modern specimen-books of
French, 55 (note) ; distinction be-
tween regularand irregularbodies
made by, 58 ; two-line and double-
bodied types separately named
by American, 59; modern taste in-
clining to models of early Italian,
85 ; notable French, 87 ; improve-
ments in types made by French,
89; some eminent German, 91;
prominent Dutch, 92 ; biographi-
cal sketches of various, 94-105;
named in Decree of Star Cham-
ber, 95; early English, and their
successors, 95, 96, 97 ; inaccuracy
of the early, 125, 126 ; bodies made
by all leading English, 129; devia
tions from standards by Ameri.
can, 130; precise height-to-paper
gauge used by, 153 ; the needs of
readers lightly regarded by, 253,
254; early, of Rouen, supply Eng
land with best types, 294; Ger-
man forms reproduced by Amer-
ican, 305 ; disused process of cast
ing in sand-moulds revived by
345, 346 ; highly ornamented let
ters not in favor with, 359 ; ina
bility of, to maintain exact uni
f ormity in a full series of types, 375
Type Founders' Association, Unit-
ed States, adoption of American
point system by, 150; methods
for securing uniformity of type
bodies agreed upon by, 152 ; re-
jection of French system by, 154;
Soint adopted by the, deviates
ttle from that devised by Four-
nier, 154, 155
Type Founders Company, Amer-
ican, branches of, 102, 103, 104,
105 ; price list of, 338 ; remarks
upon the latter, 339
Type-founding, not like other arts,
11 (note) ; one of the many forms
of printing, 26 ; lack of system in
early, 81; first made a distinct
art in France, 86, 87 ; high repu-
tation of French, 87 ; damage to
German, 91; its status in the
Netherlands during latter half of
fifteenth century, 92
Type-foundries, notices of, 94-105
Type-gauge, description and illus-
tration of, 159. 160. See Gauge
Type-making, six distinct depart-
ments of, 10; practised at Mentz
before 1460, 75; Ulric Zell and
Trithemius on, 76; recent type-
setting machines owe their utility
to new processes for, 353 ; sketch
of apparatus for, in Mergenthaler
and Lanston machines, 354-357:
other machines in process of de-
velopment for, 357, 358 ; not prob-
able that older methods or, will
fall into disuse, 358
Type-metal, no practical substitute
for, 9, 10; model letters often cut
on, 18 ; inflow of, into mould, 20 ;
constituents of, 32 (see also note) -
34; the useful properties of, 34;
lack of durability of, 35 ; its use
in stereotyping. 39 ; test of hard-
ness in, 42 ; price of, varies with
market rates of metals, 337
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401
Type-mould. See Mould.
Type-revolving machine, adjudged
injurious to types, 37; certain
types not suited for, 49, 50, 116
(note)
Types, composition of, 9 ; utility of
typography depends upon accu-
racy of, 9 ; large sizes, for posting-
bills, generally made of wood, 10 ;
beauty of text-, consists in their
precision, 11, 12; charactersinf ont
of roman book-, 12 ; variations in
depth of counters, 15, 16 (see also
note) ; smaller sizes rapidly made,
22; imperfect as thrown from
mould, 24; dressing or finishing of,
25; great improvement in casting,
25 ; various features of, illustrated
and described, 29 - 32 ; soft metal
used for ornamental, 32 ; lack of
durability of, 35; difficulties in the
making of hard, 35 (see also note) ;
durability of, depends on size and
cut of face, 36 ; differing views of
publishers as to wear of, 36, 37 ;
repeated handling of, injurious,
37 ; causes of wear in, 37, 38 ; va-
rieties of paper destructive to,
38; durability of, promoted by
cleanliness, 39 ; greater durability
of copper-faced, 41 ; importance
of solidity and even lining of,
43 (see also note) ; uneven lining
of, and its frequent cause, 44;
importance of fitting up of, 45 ;
unequal height of, 46; legibility of,
improved by close fitting, 47 ; im-
eirtance of good mechanical fin-
h of, 47; should be pleasing alone
or in mass, 49 ; effect upon press-
work of rudely cut or badly fitted,
49 ; inferior durability ana reada-
bility of bold black-faced, 50; com-
parative durability of light-faced
and heavy-faced, 51, 52; method of
naming, 53 ; similarity of names
of, in various countries mislead-
ing, 57 ; made and named every-
where without system, 57; bas-
tard, 57, 58 ; two-line and double-
bodied, 59 ; sizes and relative pro-
portions of standard, 60. 61 ; text
and ornamental, 62-68; wonder-
ful as evidences of skill, 68 ; dif-
ferent sizes of, used at Mentz be-
fore 1460, 75: similar faces of,
used by Caxton, Mansion, and
other printers, 80: improvements
in, made by French printers, 89 *
Bodoni's peculiar roman and
italic, 90 ; made by linotype ma-
chine, 105; steadily increasing
demand for book and job, 105;
differences between bodies of,
106 ; need for all present bodies of,
106; irregular sizes of, as com-
mon as regular, 106 ; proportions
of different, 109; irregularities in
faces of, 109, 110; names of, de-
termined by size of body, 110; ob-
servations on leaded, 111 (see also
note 2) ; standard widths of, 114,
116 (note) ; various sizes of, 116;
stereotyping compels use of wid-
er, 116 (note) ; broader face im-
perative for small, 117, 118; defect
of the old system of naming, 123 ;
their accuracy of the first impor-
tance, 125 ; affected by changes in
heat, 125 ; variations in height to
paper in different countries, 131
(see also note) ; six standard sizes
of, 131, 132; basis of sizes of large
wood and metal, 145, 146, 149;
proposed change of height of, 153;
injurious effects of altered stan-
dard of h eight, 1 54; change of body
in English, 158; importance of uni-
formity in height of, 159; point
system applied to the set, or
width, of, 161, 162; 163; advantages
of "self -spacing," 163; directions
for using a new font of, 174 ; space
covered by one pound of, 174 ; now
to find weight of one page of, 174 ,-
square inches occupied by one
thousand solid ems of various, 179;
relations as to ems existing be-
tween different, 179 (see also
note), 180; named and classified
in an unsatisfactory manner, 183;
fanciful names seldom given to
roman, 183; arranged in three dis-
tinct classes, 183 ; changes in the
fashion of, 209; objections to
weak, 228; defects in ordinary
faces of roman, 230; new styles
made to conform to new methods,
234 ; sizes composing a full series
of, for books and newspapers, 240;
former rarity of complete series
of, 241 (see also note) ; irregulari-
ties of two-line, 242, 243, 244, 245;
need for larger sizes of two-line,
245, 246; examples of, and remarks
upon, two-line, 251, 252; con-
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402
Index
, densed, not popular in American
and English book houses, 257; re-
action against excessive use of
condensed, for. title-pages, 257,
258 ; delicacy of hair-line in large,
258, 259; limits to condensation
of, 259 (see also note), 260 ; scarcity
of moderately condensed, 262;
condensed, appreciated by job
printers, 262 ; capitals and lower-
case not mates in some fonts,
263: utility and abuse of extra
condensed, 264, 265; over-refine-
ment in the designing of, 309 ; pro-
{>rietv of different prices for lead-
ng classes of, 336 ; other varieties
of, sold at special and irregular
rates, 336, 33*; allowance for old.
337 ; changes in cost of metal cause
changes in prices of, 337 ; cheaper
now than before, 337 ; prices of
American, 338 ; remarks upon the
latter, 339 ; different rates in Eng-
land for large and small fonts of,
340; dissimilar bodies of English
and American, 340; prices of
English, 341 ; rates for small and
ornamental, higher in England
than in America, 342 ; prices of
French, 342; variable height of
French and German, 342, 343;
unsatisfactoriness of types cut-
down, 343 ; prices of German, 343 ;
duty on importations of, 344;
obstacles hindering importation
of, 344 ; reasons for former spar-
ing use of large, 345 ; unsatisfac-
toriness of, when cast in sand-
moulds, 345; abandonment of
metal for larger sizes of, 346 ; dif-
ferent woods used for making
large, 346; methods of, and tools
used in, making wooden, 347, 348;
proper function of, 359 ; not im-
proved by decoration, 359; present
forms of roman, held by some to
be inartistic, 361 ; Morris on the
need of better, 361 ; the first ro-
man, 367; use of gothic, for later
books of early Venetian printers,
369 ; early unacceptability of ro-
man, 369; unsatisfactoriness of
early forms of thick-stemmed
roman, 370; generous relief of
white space needed by, 370, 371,
372; impossibility of preserving
uniformitv in effect throughout
series of, 375
Type-setting, mechanical, former
obstacles to, 354; the Mergen-
thaler and Lanston machines for,
354-357; other machines in pro-
cess of development for, 357, 358 ;
will never entirely supplant hand
composition, 358
Type-setting machines, usefulness
of recent forms of, due to new pro-
cesses for making types, 353 ; ap-
paratus for making and setting
types closely related, 353, 354
Typographical Union, Internation-
al, determination of standard
widths of types by, 114
Typography, utility of, 9 ; impor-
tance of skilful punch -cutting in,
11 ; faultless, to be had onlv from
new type, 37 ; Gutenberg claimed
as inventor of, 78, 79; key to the
invention of, 79; most valuable
improvements made in, by Italian
printers, 85; Garamond accom-
plishes reforms in, 86 ; decadence
of, in Italv, 90 ; Day's contribu-
tions to, 94; becomes decadent
in England after Day's death, 95 ;
best specimen of seventeenth-
century English, 95; Moxon on,
96 ; Javal on the evolution of, 334:
uniformity of every character
a great merit, 361 ; Morris's views
on the need of reform in, 361
United States, scarcity of letter-
signers in, 15
United States Type Founders' As-
sociation. See Type Founder*'
Association, "United States
University Press, of Oxford, early
types of, cast in foreign matrices,
96 ; had its own press as early as
1478, 96; contributions to, 98; its
typographical riches, 96
Van Benthuysen, O. R., a printer,
stereotyper, and type-founder,
104
Van Dijk, Christoffel, Dutch type-
founder, exhibits a size of type
between pearl and diamond, 67,
68 ; cuts punches for the Elzevirs,
92; his types warmly praised by
Moxon and Willems, 92
Venice, first appearance of nonpa-
reil roman in a Catholic manual
printed at, 67; the goldsmiths cut
punches for early printers at, 80;
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Index
403
roman perfected by Jenson at, in
1471, 85; italic and small capi-
tals introduced by Aldus Manu-
tius at, in 1501, 85 ; orientals cut
by Le Be for printers of, 87 ; Jen-
son'sdeathat,365; thick-stemmed
roman types at, 370
VUliers, Abb6 de, extract from, 273
Virgil, or Vergil (Publius Vergili-
us Maro), Roman poet, italic of
Aldus first used in octavo edition
of, 187, 270
Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet),
French writer, Beaumarchais su-
perintends complete edition of,
in Baskerville types, 99
Voskens, Dirck, of Amsterdam, dia-
mond type probably first made
by, 67 ; supplies English printers
with types, 92; foundry of, ab-
sorbed by Haarlem foundry, 92
Weed, Thurlow, a printer, newspa-
per proprietor, and public man,
sketch of, 196
Wells, Darius, a New York printer,
devotes himself to the manufac-
ture of wooden type, 347
Wells, Horace, an American type-
founder, sketch of, 221
White, Elihu, favors the Johnson
type-casting machine, 26 (note);
undertakes to make types with-
out experience, 102; moves his
type-foundry to New York, 102; es-
tablishes branches in Buffalo and
Cincinnati, 102; his successors,
102; biographical sketch of, 222
Whittingham, Charles, founder of
the Chlswick Press, revives Cas-
lon old-8tyle,98 ; sketch of, 199
Wilson, Alexander, a Scottish type-
founder, sketch of, 99
Wood, large types made from, 10
Woodcuts, the art of electrotyping
first used for, 18 (note), 219
Wood-engraving, early, 84
Worde, Wynkyn de, pupil and suc-
cessor of Caxton, 93; his later
types cut by French artists, 93 ;
many of his punches" and types
brought from Rouen, 93 ; discov-
ery of some original punches of,
97 ; Moxon's model letters show
no important departure from
those used by, 300; Old English
the character first used by, 301
(notel)
Zell, Ulric, on invention of type-
making, 76 ; claims Gutenberg as
inventor of printing, 78
Zinc, unsuitability of, as an alloy
of type-metal, 34 (see also note)
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